*Result*: Parafoveal letter identification in Russian: Confusion matrices based on error rates.
Title:
Parafoveal letter identification in Russian: Confusion matrices based on error rates.
Authors:
Alexeeva S; Institute for Cognitive Studies, Saint Petersburg State University, Office 11, 11D, 6 Line of Vasilievsky Island, Saint-Petersburg, 199004, Russia. s.alekseeva@spbu.ru.
Source:
Behavior research methods [Behav Res Methods] 2024 Dec; Vol. 56 (8), pp. 8567-8587. Date of Electronic Publication: 2024 Sep 11.
Publication Type:
Journal Article; Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov't
Language:
English
Journal Info:
Publisher: Springer Country of Publication: United States NLM ID: 101244316 Publication Model: Print-Electronic Cited Medium: Internet ISSN: 1554-3528 (Electronic) Linking ISSN: 1554351X NLM ISO Abbreviation: Behav Res Methods Subsets: MEDLINE
Imprint Name(s):
Publication: 2010- : New York : Springer
Original Publication: Austin, Tex. : Psychonomic Society, c2005-
Original Publication: Austin, Tex. : Psychonomic Society, c2005-
MeSH Terms:
References:
Appelman, I. B., & Mayzner, M. S. (1981). The letter-frequency effect and the generality of familiarity effects on perception. Perception & Psychophysics, 30(5), 436–446.
Balota, D. A., Pollatsek, A., & Rayner, K. (1985). The interaction of contextual constraints and parafoveal visual information in reading. Cognitive Psychology, 17(3), 364–390. https://doi.org/10.1016/0010-0285(85)90013-1. (PMID: 10.1016/0010-0285(85)90013-14053565)
Barhoom, H., Joshi, M. R., & Schmidtmann, G. (2021). The effect of response biases on resolution thresholds of Sloan letters in central and paracentral vision. Vision Research, 187, 110–119. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.visres.2021.06.002. (PMID: 10.1016/j.visres.2021.06.00234252726)
Bates, D., Mächler, M., Bolker, B., & Walker, S. (2014). Fitting linear mixed-effects models using lme4. arXiv Preprint arXiv:1406.5823.
Beier, S. (2009). Typeface legibility: Towards defining familiarity. Royal College of Art (United Kingdom).
Bernard, J.-B., Aguilar, C., & Castet, E. (2016). A New Font, Specifically Designed for Peripheral Vision, Improves Peripheral Letter and Word Recognition, but Not Eye-Mediated Reading Performance. PLoS ONE, 11(4), e0152506. (PMID: 27074013)
Bernard, J.-B., & Chung, S. T. (2011). The dependence of crowding on flanker complexity and target–flanker similarity. Journal of Vision, 11(8), 1–1. https://doi.org/10.1167/11.8.1. (PMID: 10.1167/11.8.121730225)
Bicknell, K., Higgins, E., Levy, R., & Rayner, K. (2013). Evidence for cognitively controlled saccade targeting in reading. Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the Cognitive Science Society. (Vol. 35, No. 35).
Bigelow, C. (2019). Typeface features and legibility research. Vision Research, 165, 162–172. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.visres.2019.05.003. (PMID: 10.1016/j.visres.2019.05.00331078662)
Bijankjan, M., & Arab, S. (2019). Effect of apparent resemblance of the Persian letters on their visual recognition. Language and Linguistics, 15(30), 1–18.
Blanchard, H. E., Pollatsek, A., & Rayner, K. (1989). The acquisition of parafoveal word information in reading. Perception & Psychophysics, 46(1), 85–94. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03208078. (PMID: 10.3758/BF03208078)
Blommaert, F. J. (1988). Early-visual factors in letter confusions. Spatial Vision, 3, 199–224. https://doi.org/10.1163/156856888X00131. (PMID: 10.1163/156856888X001313153672)
Blondel, V. D., Guillaume, J.-L., Lambiotte, R., & Lefebvre, E. (2008). Fast unfolding of communities in large networks. Journal of Statistical Mechanics: Theory and Experiment, 2008(10), P10008.
Boles, D. B., & Clifford, J. E. (1989). An upper-and lowercase alphabetic similarity matrix, with derived generation similarity values. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers, 21(6), 579–586.
Boudelaa, S., Perea, M., & Carreiras, M. (2020). Matrices of the frequency and similarity of Arabic letters and allographs. Behavior Research Methods, 52(5), 1893–1905. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-020-01353-z. (PMID: 10.3758/s13428-020-01353-z32077081)
Bouma, H. (1971). Visual recognition of isolated lower-case letters. Vision Research, 11(5), 459–474. https://doi.org/10.1016/0042-6989(71)90087-3. (PMID: 10.1016/0042-6989(71)90087-35558929)
Bouma, H. (1973). Visual interference in the parafoveal recognition of initial and final letters of words. Vision Research, 13(4), 767–782. https://doi.org/10.1016/0042-6989(73)90041-2. (PMID: 10.1016/0042-6989(73)90041-24706350)
Brezina, D. (2019). Coherence in typeface design: Visual similarity of characters in Cyrillic, Devanagari, and Latin [Phd, University of Reading]. https://doi.org/10.48683/1926.00085141.
Briggs, R., & Hocevar, D. J. (1975). A new distinctive feature theory for upper case letters. Journal of General Psychology, 93, 87.
Brysbaert, M. (2018). Number of participants required for common designs in psychology.
Brysbaert, M., & Stevens, M. (2018). Power analysis and effect size in mixed effects models: A tutorial. Journal of Cognition, 1(1).
Changizi, M. A., & Shimojo, S. (2005). Character complexity and redundancy in writing systems over human history. Proceedings of the Royal Society b: Biological Sciences, 272(1560), 267–275. (PMID: 1634970)
Chaparro, B. S., Shaikh, A. D., & Chaparro, A. (2006). The Legibility of ClearType Fonts. Th ANNUAL MEETING.
Choi, W., Lowder, M. W., Ferreira, F., Swaab, T. Y., & Henderson, J. M. (2017). Effects of word predictability and preview lexicality on eye movements during reading: A comparison between young and older adults. Psychology and Aging, 32, 232–242. https://doi.org/10.1037/pag0000160. (PMID: 10.1037/pag000016028333501)
Coates, D. R. (2015). Quantifying crowded and uncrowded letter recognition [University of California, Berkeley]. https://www.ocf.berkeley.edu/~dcoates/thesis.pdf.
Coates, D. R., Bernard, J.-B., & Chung, S. T. (2019). Feature contingencies when reading letter strings. Vision Research, 156, 84–95. (PMID: 30660632)
Coffin, S. (1978). Spatial frequency analysis of block letters does not predict experimental confusions. Perception & Psychophysics, 23(1), 69–74.
Courrieu, P., Farioli, F., & Grainger, J. (2004). Inverse discrimination time as a perceptual distance for alphabetic characters. Visual Cognition, 11(7), 901–919.
Craig, J. C. (1979). A confusion matrix for tactually presented letters. Perception & Psychophysics.
Crompton, A. (2014). How to look at a reading font. Word & Image, 30(2), 79–89. https://doi.org/10.1080/02666286.2013.817132. (PMID: 10.1080/02666286.2013.817132)
Drieghe, D., Rayner, K., & Pollatsek, A. (2005). Eye Movements and Word Skipping During Reading Revisited. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 31, 954–969. https://doi.org/10.1037/0096-1523.31.5.954. (PMID: 10.1037/0096-1523.31.5.95416262491)
Dunn-Rankin, P. (1968). The similarity of lower-case letters of the English alphabet. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 7(6), 990–995.
Dunn-Rankin, P., Leton, D. A., & Shelton, V. F. (1968). Congruency Factors Related to Visual Confusion of English Letters. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 26(2), 659–666. https://doi.org/10.2466/pms.1968.26.2.659. (PMID: 10.2466/pms.1968.26.2.6595659096)
Findelsberger, E., Hutzler, F., & Hawelka, S. (2019). Spill the load: Mixed evidence for a foveal load effect, reliable evidence for a spillover effect in eye-movement control during reading. Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics, 81(5), 1442–1453. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13414-019-01689-5. (PMID: 10.3758/s13414-019-01689-5)
Finkbeiner, M., & Coltheart, M. (2009). Letter recognition: From perception to representation. Cognitive Neuropsychology, 26(1), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1080/02643290902905294. (PMID: 10.1080/0264329090290529419424880)
Fiset, D., Blais, C., Arguin, M., Tadros, K., Ethier-Majcher, C., Bub, D., & Gosselin, F. (2009). The spatio-temporal dynamics of visual letter recognition. Cognitive Neuropsychology, 26(1), 23–35. (PMID: 18979274)
Fiset, D., Blais, C., Ethier-Majcher, C., Arguin, M., Bub, D., & Gosselin, F. (2008). Features for identification of uppercase and lowercase letters. Psychological Science, 19(11), 1161–1168. (PMID: 19076489)
Fisher, D. F., Monty, R. A., & Glucksberg, S. (1969). Visual confusion matrices: Fact or artifact? The Journal of Psychology, 71(1), 111–125. (PMID: 5779886)
Freeman, J., Chakravarthi, R., & Pelli, D. G. (2012). Substitution and pooling in crowding. Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics, 74(2), 379–396.
Garner, W. R., & Haun, F. (1978). Letter identification as a function of type of perceptual limitation and type of attribute. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 4, 199–209. https://doi.org/10.1037/0096-1523.4.2.199. (PMID: 10.1037/0096-1523.4.2.199660095)
Gelderman, M. (1998). A short introduction to font characteristics.
Gervais, M. J., Harvey, L. O., & Roberts, J. O. (1984). Identification confusions among letters of the alphabet. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 10(5), 655. (PMID: 6238125)
Geyer, L. H. (1977). Recognition and confusion of the lowercase alphabet. Perception & Psychophysics, 22(5), 487–490.
Geyer, L. H., & DeWald, C. G. (1973). Feature lists and confusion matrices. Perception & Psychophysics, 14(3), 471–482.
Gilmore, G. C., Hersh, H., Caramazza, A., & Griffin, J. (1979). Multidimensional letter similarity derived from recognition errors. Perception & Psychophysics, 25(5), 425–431.
Grainger, J., Rey, A., & Dufau, S. (2008). Letter perception: From pixels to pandemonium. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 12(10), 381–387. (PMID: 18760658)
Gupta, S. M., Geyer, L. H., & Maalouf, J. A. (1983). Effect of font and medium on recognition/confusion. Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, 144–149.
Häikiö, T., Bertram, R., Hyönä, J., & Niemi, P. (2009). Development of the letter identity span in reading: Evidence from the eye movement moving window paradigm. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 102(2), 167–181. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2008.04.002. (PMID: 10.1016/j.jecp.2008.04.00218538339)
Hanus, D., & Vul, E. (2013). Quantifying error distributions in crowding. Journal of Vision, 13(4), 17–17. (PMID: 23525133)
Harris, L., Olson, A., & Humphreys, G. (2013). Overcoming the effect of letter confusability in letter-by-letter reading: A rehabilitation study. Neuropsychological Rehabilitation, 23(3), 429–462. https://doi.org/10.1080/09602011.2013.776500. (PMID: 10.1080/09602011.2013.77650023452100)
Hautala, J., Hyönä, J., & Aro, M. (2011). Dissociating spatial and letter-based word length effects observed in readers’ eye movement patterns. Vision Research, 51(15), 1719–1727. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.visres.2011.05.015. (PMID: 10.1016/j.visres.2011.05.01521664920)
Henderson, J. M., & Ferreira, F. (1990). Effects of foveal processing difficulty on the perceptual span in reading: Implications for attention and eye movement control. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 16, 417–429. https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-7393.16.3.417. (PMID: 10.1037/0278-7393.16.3.4172140401)
Higuchi, H., & Kobayashi, T. (2022). Letter visual similarity of Japanese hiragana and katakana based on reaction times. Current Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-021-02664-w. (PMID: 10.1007/s12144-021-02664-w)
Holbrook, M. B. (1975). A comparison of methods for measuring the interletter similarity between capital letters. Perception & Psychophysics, 17(6), 532–536.
Hyönä, J., Bertram, R., & Pollatsek, A. (2004). Are long compound words identified serially via their constituents? Evidence from an eyemovement-contingent display change study. Memory & Cognition, 32(4), 523–532. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03195844. (PMID: 10.3758/BF03195844)
Inhoff, A. W., & Eiter, B. M. (2003). Knowledge of word length does not constrain word identification. Psychological Research Psychologische Forschung, 67(1), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00426-002-0095-4. (PMID: 10.1007/s00426-002-0095-412589445)
Inhoff, A. W., Eiter, B., Radach, R., & Juhasz, B. (2003). Distinct subsystems for the parafoveal processing of spatial and linguistic information during eye fixations in reading. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology Section A, 56(5), 803–827. https://doi.org/10.1080/02724980244000639. (PMID: 10.1080/02724980244000639)
Jacobs, A. M., Nazir, T. A., & Heller, O. (1989). Perception of lowercase letters in peripheral vision: A discrimination matrix based on saccade latencies. Perception & Psychophysics, 46(1), 95–102. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03208079. (PMID: 10.3758/BF03208079)
Jordan, T. R., McGowan, V. A., Kurtev, S., & Paterson, K. B. (2016). A further look at postview effects in reading: An eye-movements study of influences from the left of fixation. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 42, 296–307. https://doi.org/10.1037/xlm0000157. (PMID: 10.1037/xlm000015726322828)
Josephson, S. (2008). Keeping Your Readers’ Eyes on the Screen: An Eye-Tracking Study Comparing Sans Serif and Serif Typefaces. Visual Communication Quarterly, 15(1–2), 67–79. https://doi.org/10.1080/15551390801914595. (PMID: 10.1080/15551390801914595)
Keren, G., & Baggen, S. (1981). Recognition models of alphanumeric characters. Perception & Psychophysics, 29(3), 234–246.
Kinoshita, S., Robidoux, S., Mills, L., & Norris, D. (2014). Visual similarity effects on masked priming. Memory & Cognition, 42(5), 821–833.
Kirkby, J. A., Barrington, R. S., Drieghe, D., & Liversedge, S. P. (2022). Parafoveal processing and transposed-letter effects in dyslexic reading. Dyslexia, 28(3), 359–374. (PMID: 35818161)
Kliegl, R., Grabner, E., Rolfs, M., & Engbert, R. (2004). Length, frequency, and predictability effects of words on eye movements in reading. European Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 16(1–2), 262–284. https://doi.org/10.1080/09541440340000213. (PMID: 10.1080/09541440340000213)
Korshunov, D. S. (2012). Psikholingvisticheskiye modeli chteniya v bukvennykh i iyeroglificheskikh yazykakh [Psycholinguistic models of reading for alphabetic and logographic languages] [Thesis]. https://dissercat.com/content/psikholingvisticheskie-modeli-chteniya-v-bukvennykh-i-ieroglificheskikh-yazykakh . Accessed 30 Sept 2022.
Kuennapas, T., & Janson, A.-J. (1969). Multidimensional similarity of letters. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 28(1), 3–12. (PMID: 5777970)
Kuznetsova, A., Brockhoff, P. B., & Christensen, R. H. (2017). lmerTest package: Tests in linear mixed effects models. Journal of Statistical Software, 82, 1–26.
Lenth, R., Singmann, H., Love, J., Buerkner, P., & Herve, M. (2019). Emmeans: Estimated marginal means, aka least-squares means (Version 1.3. 4). Emmeans Estim. Marg. Means Aka Least-Sq. MeansHttps://CRAN.R-Project.Org/Package=Emmeans.
Levi, D. M. (2008). Crowding—An essential bottleneck for object recognition: A mini-review. Vision Research, 48(5), 635–654. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.visres.2007.12.009. (PMID: 10.1016/j.visres.2007.12.00918226828)
Liu, L., & Arditi, A. (2001). How crowding affects letter confusion. Optometry & Vision Science, 78(1), 50–55.
Marcet, A., & Perea, M. (2018a). Can I order a burger at rnacdonalds.com? Visual similarity effects of multi-letter combinations at the early stages of word recognition. Journal of Experimental Psychology. Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 44(5), 699–706. https://doi.org/10.1037/xlm0000477.
Marcet, A., & Perea, M. (2018b). Visual letter similarity effects during sentence reading: Evidence from the boundary technique. Acta Psychologica, 190, 142–149. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2018.08.007. (PMID: 10.1016/j.actpsy.2018.08.00730119047)
McConkie, G. W., & Rayner, K. (1975). The span of the effective stimulus during a fixation in reading. Perception & Psychophysics, 17(6), 578–586. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03203972. (PMID: 10.3758/BF03203972)
McConkie, G. W., & Rayner, K. (1976). Asymmetry of the perceptual span in reading. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 8(5), 365–368. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03335168. (PMID: 10.3758/BF03335168)
McGowan, V. A. (2015). The processing of spatial information during reading: Processing of previously read text and effects of adult age [Thesis, School of Psychology]. https://lra.le.ac.uk/handle/2381/31990.
Mueller, S. T., & Weidemann, C. T. (2012). Alphabetic letter identification: Effects of perceivability, similarity, and bias. Acta Psychologica, 139(1), 19–37. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2011.09.014. (PMID: 10.1016/j.actpsy.2011.09.01422036587)
Navarro, D. J., & Griffiths, T. L. (2008). Latent features in similarity judgments: A nonparametric Bayesian approach. Neural Computation, 20(11), 2597–2628. (PMID: 18533818)
New, B., & Grainger, J. (2011). On letter frequency effects. Acta Psychologica, 138(2), 322–328. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2011.07.001. (PMID: 10.1016/j.actpsy.2011.07.00121855049)
Ovink, G. W. (1938). Legibility, atmosphere-value and forms of printing types (Vol. 10). Leiden: AW Sijthoff.
Pelli, D. G., Burns, C. W., Farell, B., & Moore-Page, D. C. (2006). Feature detection and letter identification. Vision Research, 46(28), 4646–4674. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.visres.2006.04.023. (PMID: 10.1016/j.visres.2006.04.02316808957)
Perea, M., Mallouh, R. A., Mohammed, A., Khalifa, B., & Carreiras, M. (2018). Does visual letter similarity modulate masked form priming in young readers of Arabic? Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 169, 110–117. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2017.12.004. (PMID: 10.1016/j.jecp.2017.12.00429357989)
Petit, J.-P., & Grainger, J. (2002). Masked partial priming of letter perception. Visual Cognition, 9(3), 337–353.
Podgorny, P., & Garner, W. R. (1979). Reaction time as a measure of inter-and intraobject visual similarity: Letters of the alphabet. Perception & Psychophysics, 26(1), 37–52.
Popp, H. M. (1964). Visual discrimination of alphabet letters. The Reading Teacher, 17(4), 221–226.
Pušnik, N., Kovačević, D., Brozović, M., & Možina, K. (2014). Is legibility of typefaces designed for screen use the same for different languages?.
Rayner, K. (1975). The perceptual span and peripheral cues in reading. Cognitive Psychology, 7(1), 65–81. https://doi.org/10.1016/0010-0285(75)90005-5. (PMID: 10.1016/0010-0285(75)90005-5)
Rayner, K. (1998). Eye Movements in Reading and Information Processing: 20 Years of Research. Psychological Bulletin, 124(3), 372–422. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.124.3.372. (PMID: 10.1037/0033-2909.124.3.3729849112)
Rayner, K., Balota, D. A., & Pollatsek, A. (1986). Against parafoveal semantic preprocessing during eye fixations in reading. Canadian Journal of Psychology/revue Canadienne De Psychologie, 40, 473–483. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0080111. (PMID: 10.1037/h0080111)
Rayner, K., Castelhano, M. S., & Yang, J. (2010). Preview benefit during eye fixations in reading for older and younger readers. Psychology and Aging, 25, 714–718. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0019199. (PMID: 10.1037/a001919920853974)
Rayner, K., & Kaiser, J. S. (1975). Reading mutilated text. Journal of Educational Psychology, 67(2), 301–306. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0077015. (PMID: 10.1037/h0077015)
Rayner, K., Liversedge, S. P., White, S. J., & Vergilino-Perez, D. (2003). Reading Disappearing Text Cognitive Control of Eye Movements. Psychological Science, 14(4), 385–388. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9280.24483. (PMID: 10.1111/1467-9280.2448312807416)
Rayner, K., McConkie, G. W., & Ehrlich, S. (1978). Eye movements and integrating information across fixations. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 4, 529–544. https://doi.org/10.1037/0096-1523.4.4.529. (PMID: 10.1037/0096-1523.4.4.529722245)
Rayner, K., Pollatsek, A., & Binder, K. S. (1998). Phonological codes and eye movements in reading. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 24, 476–497. https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-7393.24.2.476. (PMID: 10.1037/0278-7393.24.2.4769530845)
Rayner, K., Schotter, E. R., & Drieghe, D. (2014). Lack of semantic parafoveal preview benefit in reading revisited. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 21(4), 1067–1072. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-014-0582-9. (PMID: 10.3758/s13423-014-0582-9)
Rayner, K., Well, A. D., Pollatsek, A., & Bertera, J. H. (1982). The availability of useful information to the right of fixation in reading. Perception & Psychophysics, 31(6), 537–550. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03204186. (PMID: 10.3758/BF03204186)
Reich, L. N., & Bedell, H. E. (2000). Relative legibility and confusions of letter acuity targets in the peripheral and central retina. Optometry & Vision Science, 77(5), 270–275.
Reingold, E. M., Reichle, E. D., Glaholt, M. G., & Sheridan, H. (2012). Direct lexical control of eye movements in reading: Evidence from a survival analysis of fixation durations. Cognitive Psychology, 65(2), 177–206. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cogpsych.2012.03.001. (PMID: 10.1016/j.cogpsych.2012.03.00122542804)
Risse, S., & Kliegl, R. (2011). Adult age differences in the perceptual span during reading. Psychology and Aging, 26, 451–460. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0021616. (PMID: 10.1037/a002161621401266)
Risse, S., & Kliegl, R. (2012). Processing in the perceptual span: Investigations with the n+2-boundary paradigm [Universitätsbibliothek der Universität Potsdam]. http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:kobv:517-opus-60414 . Accessed 15 Mar 2021.
Roethlein, B. E. (1912). The Relative Legibility of Different Faces of Printing Types. The American Journal of Psychology, 23(1), 1–36. https://doi.org/10.2307/1413112. (PMID: 10.2307/1413112)
Rothlein, D., & Rapp, B. (2017). The role of allograph representations in font-invariant letter identification. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 43, 1411–1429. https://doi.org/10.1037/xhp0000384. (PMID: 10.1037/xhp000038428368166)
Rumelhart, D. E., & Siple, P. (1974). Process of recognizing tachistoscopically presented words. Psychological Review, 81(2), 99. (PMID: 4817613)
Sattath, S., & Tversky, A. (1977). Additive similarity trees. Psychometrika, 42(3), 319–345.
Schotter, E. R., Angele, B., & Rayner, K. (2011). Parafoveal processing in reading. Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics, 74(1), 5–35. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13414-011-0219-2. (PMID: 10.3758/s13414-011-0219-2)
Schubert, T. M. (2015). Cognitive processes of letter and digit identification [Thesis, Johns Hopkins University]. https://jscholarship.library.jhu.edu/handle/1774.2/37937 . Accessed 14 Dec 2022.
Simpson, I. C., Mousikou, P., Montoya, J. M., & Defior, S. (2012). A letter visual-similarity matrix for Latin-based alphabets. Behavior Research Methods, 45(2), 431–439. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-012-0271-4. (PMID: 10.3758/s13428-012-0271-4)
Sokolov, Ye.N., Izmailov, Ch. A., & Zavgorodnyaya, V. L. (1985). Mnogomernoye shkalirovaniye znakovykh konfiguratsiy [Multidimensional scaling of character configurations]. Voprosy Psychologii, 1, 131–140.
Terekhina, A. Yu. (1978). Mnogomernyy analiz sub"yektivnykh dannykh o skhodstvakh ili razlichiyakh [Multivariate analysis of subjective data on similarities and differences]. Economics.
Tiffin-Richards, S. P., & Schroeder, S. (2015). Children’s and adults’ parafoveal processes in German: Phonological and orthographic effects. Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 27(5), 531–548.
Tinker, M. A. (1928). The relative legibility of the letters, the digits, and of certain mathematical signs. The Journal of General Psychology, 1(3–4), 472–496.
Townsend, J. T. (1971a). Alphabetic confusion: A test of models for individuals. Perception & Psychophysics, 9(6), 449–454.
Townsend, J. T. (1971b). Theoretical analysis of an alphabetic confusion matrix. Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics, 9(1), 40–50.
Tydgat, I., & Grainger, J. (2009). Serial position effects in the identification of letters, digits, and symbols. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 35(2), 480–498. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0013027. (PMID: 10.1037/a001302719331502)
Underwood, N. R., & McConkie, G. W. (1985). Perceptual Span for Letter Distinctions during Reading. Reading Research Quarterly, 20(2), 153–162. https://doi.org/10.2307/747752. (PMID: 10.2307/747752)
Van der Heijden, A. H., Malhas, M. S., & Van Den Roovaart, B. P. (1984). An empirical interletter confusion matrix for continuous-line capitals. Perception & Psychophysics.
Van Nes, F. L. (1983). New characters for Teletext with improved legibility. IPO Annual Progress Report, 18, 108–113.
Vasilev, M. R., & Angele, B. (2017). Parafoveal preview effects from word N+ 1 and word N+ 2 during reading: A critical review and Bayesian meta-analysis. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 24, 666–689.
Watson, A. B., & Ahumada, A. J. (2012). Modeling acuity for optotypes varying in complexity. Journal of Vision, 12(10), 19–19. (PMID: 23024356)
White, S. J., Johnson, R. L., Liversedge, S. P., & Rayner, K. (2008). Eye movements when reading transposed text: The importance of word-beginning letters. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 34(5), 1261–1276. https://doi.org/10.1037/0096-1523.34.5.1261. (PMID: 10.1037/0096-1523.34.5.126118823209)
White, S. J., Warren, T., & Reichle, E. D. (2011). Parafoveal preview during reading: Effects of sentence position. Journal of Experimental Psychology. Human Perception and Performance, 37(4), 1221–1238. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0022190.
Wiley, R. W., Wilson, C., & Rapp, B. (2016). The effects of alphabet and expertise on letter perception. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 42, 1186–1203. https://doi.org/10.1037/xhp0000213. (PMID: 10.1037/xhp000021326913778)
Yan, M., Zhou, W., Shu, H., & Kliegl, R. (2015). Perceptual span depends on font size during the reading of Chinese sentences. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 41, 209–219. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0038097. (PMID: 10.1037/a003809725329081)
Yan, M., Zhou, W., Shu, H., Yusupu, R., Miao, D., Krügel, A., & Kliegl, R. (2014). Eye movements guided by morphological structure: Evidence from the Uighur language. Cognition, 132(2), 181–215. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2014.03.008. (PMID: 10.1016/j.cognition.2014.03.00824813572)
Zhang, Z., & Wang, J. (2006). MLLE: Modified locally linear embedding using multiple weights. Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems, 19.
Balota, D. A., Pollatsek, A., & Rayner, K. (1985). The interaction of contextual constraints and parafoveal visual information in reading. Cognitive Psychology, 17(3), 364–390. https://doi.org/10.1016/0010-0285(85)90013-1. (PMID: 10.1016/0010-0285(85)90013-14053565)
Barhoom, H., Joshi, M. R., & Schmidtmann, G. (2021). The effect of response biases on resolution thresholds of Sloan letters in central and paracentral vision. Vision Research, 187, 110–119. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.visres.2021.06.002. (PMID: 10.1016/j.visres.2021.06.00234252726)
Bates, D., Mächler, M., Bolker, B., & Walker, S. (2014). Fitting linear mixed-effects models using lme4. arXiv Preprint arXiv:1406.5823.
Beier, S. (2009). Typeface legibility: Towards defining familiarity. Royal College of Art (United Kingdom).
Bernard, J.-B., Aguilar, C., & Castet, E. (2016). A New Font, Specifically Designed for Peripheral Vision, Improves Peripheral Letter and Word Recognition, but Not Eye-Mediated Reading Performance. PLoS ONE, 11(4), e0152506. (PMID: 27074013)
Bernard, J.-B., & Chung, S. T. (2011). The dependence of crowding on flanker complexity and target–flanker similarity. Journal of Vision, 11(8), 1–1. https://doi.org/10.1167/11.8.1. (PMID: 10.1167/11.8.121730225)
Bicknell, K., Higgins, E., Levy, R., & Rayner, K. (2013). Evidence for cognitively controlled saccade targeting in reading. Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the Cognitive Science Society. (Vol. 35, No. 35).
Bigelow, C. (2019). Typeface features and legibility research. Vision Research, 165, 162–172. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.visres.2019.05.003. (PMID: 10.1016/j.visres.2019.05.00331078662)
Bijankjan, M., & Arab, S. (2019). Effect of apparent resemblance of the Persian letters on their visual recognition. Language and Linguistics, 15(30), 1–18.
Blanchard, H. E., Pollatsek, A., & Rayner, K. (1989). The acquisition of parafoveal word information in reading. Perception & Psychophysics, 46(1), 85–94. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03208078. (PMID: 10.3758/BF03208078)
Blommaert, F. J. (1988). Early-visual factors in letter confusions. Spatial Vision, 3, 199–224. https://doi.org/10.1163/156856888X00131. (PMID: 10.1163/156856888X001313153672)
Blondel, V. D., Guillaume, J.-L., Lambiotte, R., & Lefebvre, E. (2008). Fast unfolding of communities in large networks. Journal of Statistical Mechanics: Theory and Experiment, 2008(10), P10008.
Boles, D. B., & Clifford, J. E. (1989). An upper-and lowercase alphabetic similarity matrix, with derived generation similarity values. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers, 21(6), 579–586.
Boudelaa, S., Perea, M., & Carreiras, M. (2020). Matrices of the frequency and similarity of Arabic letters and allographs. Behavior Research Methods, 52(5), 1893–1905. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-020-01353-z. (PMID: 10.3758/s13428-020-01353-z32077081)
Bouma, H. (1971). Visual recognition of isolated lower-case letters. Vision Research, 11(5), 459–474. https://doi.org/10.1016/0042-6989(71)90087-3. (PMID: 10.1016/0042-6989(71)90087-35558929)
Bouma, H. (1973). Visual interference in the parafoveal recognition of initial and final letters of words. Vision Research, 13(4), 767–782. https://doi.org/10.1016/0042-6989(73)90041-2. (PMID: 10.1016/0042-6989(73)90041-24706350)
Brezina, D. (2019). Coherence in typeface design: Visual similarity of characters in Cyrillic, Devanagari, and Latin [Phd, University of Reading]. https://doi.org/10.48683/1926.00085141.
Briggs, R., & Hocevar, D. J. (1975). A new distinctive feature theory for upper case letters. Journal of General Psychology, 93, 87.
Brysbaert, M. (2018). Number of participants required for common designs in psychology.
Brysbaert, M., & Stevens, M. (2018). Power analysis and effect size in mixed effects models: A tutorial. Journal of Cognition, 1(1).
Changizi, M. A., & Shimojo, S. (2005). Character complexity and redundancy in writing systems over human history. Proceedings of the Royal Society b: Biological Sciences, 272(1560), 267–275. (PMID: 1634970)
Chaparro, B. S., Shaikh, A. D., & Chaparro, A. (2006). The Legibility of ClearType Fonts. Th ANNUAL MEETING.
Choi, W., Lowder, M. W., Ferreira, F., Swaab, T. Y., & Henderson, J. M. (2017). Effects of word predictability and preview lexicality on eye movements during reading: A comparison between young and older adults. Psychology and Aging, 32, 232–242. https://doi.org/10.1037/pag0000160. (PMID: 10.1037/pag000016028333501)
Coates, D. R. (2015). Quantifying crowded and uncrowded letter recognition [University of California, Berkeley]. https://www.ocf.berkeley.edu/~dcoates/thesis.pdf.
Coates, D. R., Bernard, J.-B., & Chung, S. T. (2019). Feature contingencies when reading letter strings. Vision Research, 156, 84–95. (PMID: 30660632)
Coffin, S. (1978). Spatial frequency analysis of block letters does not predict experimental confusions. Perception & Psychophysics, 23(1), 69–74.
Courrieu, P., Farioli, F., & Grainger, J. (2004). Inverse discrimination time as a perceptual distance for alphabetic characters. Visual Cognition, 11(7), 901–919.
Craig, J. C. (1979). A confusion matrix for tactually presented letters. Perception & Psychophysics.
Crompton, A. (2014). How to look at a reading font. Word & Image, 30(2), 79–89. https://doi.org/10.1080/02666286.2013.817132. (PMID: 10.1080/02666286.2013.817132)
Drieghe, D., Rayner, K., & Pollatsek, A. (2005). Eye Movements and Word Skipping During Reading Revisited. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 31, 954–969. https://doi.org/10.1037/0096-1523.31.5.954. (PMID: 10.1037/0096-1523.31.5.95416262491)
Dunn-Rankin, P. (1968). The similarity of lower-case letters of the English alphabet. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 7(6), 990–995.
Dunn-Rankin, P., Leton, D. A., & Shelton, V. F. (1968). Congruency Factors Related to Visual Confusion of English Letters. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 26(2), 659–666. https://doi.org/10.2466/pms.1968.26.2.659. (PMID: 10.2466/pms.1968.26.2.6595659096)
Findelsberger, E., Hutzler, F., & Hawelka, S. (2019). Spill the load: Mixed evidence for a foveal load effect, reliable evidence for a spillover effect in eye-movement control during reading. Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics, 81(5), 1442–1453. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13414-019-01689-5. (PMID: 10.3758/s13414-019-01689-5)
Finkbeiner, M., & Coltheart, M. (2009). Letter recognition: From perception to representation. Cognitive Neuropsychology, 26(1), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1080/02643290902905294. (PMID: 10.1080/0264329090290529419424880)
Fiset, D., Blais, C., Arguin, M., Tadros, K., Ethier-Majcher, C., Bub, D., & Gosselin, F. (2009). The spatio-temporal dynamics of visual letter recognition. Cognitive Neuropsychology, 26(1), 23–35. (PMID: 18979274)
Fiset, D., Blais, C., Ethier-Majcher, C., Arguin, M., Bub, D., & Gosselin, F. (2008). Features for identification of uppercase and lowercase letters. Psychological Science, 19(11), 1161–1168. (PMID: 19076489)
Fisher, D. F., Monty, R. A., & Glucksberg, S. (1969). Visual confusion matrices: Fact or artifact? The Journal of Psychology, 71(1), 111–125. (PMID: 5779886)
Freeman, J., Chakravarthi, R., & Pelli, D. G. (2012). Substitution and pooling in crowding. Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics, 74(2), 379–396.
Garner, W. R., & Haun, F. (1978). Letter identification as a function of type of perceptual limitation and type of attribute. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 4, 199–209. https://doi.org/10.1037/0096-1523.4.2.199. (PMID: 10.1037/0096-1523.4.2.199660095)
Gelderman, M. (1998). A short introduction to font characteristics.
Gervais, M. J., Harvey, L. O., & Roberts, J. O. (1984). Identification confusions among letters of the alphabet. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 10(5), 655. (PMID: 6238125)
Geyer, L. H. (1977). Recognition and confusion of the lowercase alphabet. Perception & Psychophysics, 22(5), 487–490.
Geyer, L. H., & DeWald, C. G. (1973). Feature lists and confusion matrices. Perception & Psychophysics, 14(3), 471–482.
Gilmore, G. C., Hersh, H., Caramazza, A., & Griffin, J. (1979). Multidimensional letter similarity derived from recognition errors. Perception & Psychophysics, 25(5), 425–431.
Grainger, J., Rey, A., & Dufau, S. (2008). Letter perception: From pixels to pandemonium. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 12(10), 381–387. (PMID: 18760658)
Gupta, S. M., Geyer, L. H., & Maalouf, J. A. (1983). Effect of font and medium on recognition/confusion. Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, 144–149.
Häikiö, T., Bertram, R., Hyönä, J., & Niemi, P. (2009). Development of the letter identity span in reading: Evidence from the eye movement moving window paradigm. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 102(2), 167–181. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2008.04.002. (PMID: 10.1016/j.jecp.2008.04.00218538339)
Hanus, D., & Vul, E. (2013). Quantifying error distributions in crowding. Journal of Vision, 13(4), 17–17. (PMID: 23525133)
Harris, L., Olson, A., & Humphreys, G. (2013). Overcoming the effect of letter confusability in letter-by-letter reading: A rehabilitation study. Neuropsychological Rehabilitation, 23(3), 429–462. https://doi.org/10.1080/09602011.2013.776500. (PMID: 10.1080/09602011.2013.77650023452100)
Hautala, J., Hyönä, J., & Aro, M. (2011). Dissociating spatial and letter-based word length effects observed in readers’ eye movement patterns. Vision Research, 51(15), 1719–1727. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.visres.2011.05.015. (PMID: 10.1016/j.visres.2011.05.01521664920)
Henderson, J. M., & Ferreira, F. (1990). Effects of foveal processing difficulty on the perceptual span in reading: Implications for attention and eye movement control. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 16, 417–429. https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-7393.16.3.417. (PMID: 10.1037/0278-7393.16.3.4172140401)
Higuchi, H., & Kobayashi, T. (2022). Letter visual similarity of Japanese hiragana and katakana based on reaction times. Current Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-021-02664-w. (PMID: 10.1007/s12144-021-02664-w)
Holbrook, M. B. (1975). A comparison of methods for measuring the interletter similarity between capital letters. Perception & Psychophysics, 17(6), 532–536.
Hyönä, J., Bertram, R., & Pollatsek, A. (2004). Are long compound words identified serially via their constituents? Evidence from an eyemovement-contingent display change study. Memory & Cognition, 32(4), 523–532. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03195844. (PMID: 10.3758/BF03195844)
Inhoff, A. W., & Eiter, B. M. (2003). Knowledge of word length does not constrain word identification. Psychological Research Psychologische Forschung, 67(1), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00426-002-0095-4. (PMID: 10.1007/s00426-002-0095-412589445)
Inhoff, A. W., Eiter, B., Radach, R., & Juhasz, B. (2003). Distinct subsystems for the parafoveal processing of spatial and linguistic information during eye fixations in reading. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology Section A, 56(5), 803–827. https://doi.org/10.1080/02724980244000639. (PMID: 10.1080/02724980244000639)
Jacobs, A. M., Nazir, T. A., & Heller, O. (1989). Perception of lowercase letters in peripheral vision: A discrimination matrix based on saccade latencies. Perception & Psychophysics, 46(1), 95–102. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03208079. (PMID: 10.3758/BF03208079)
Jordan, T. R., McGowan, V. A., Kurtev, S., & Paterson, K. B. (2016). A further look at postview effects in reading: An eye-movements study of influences from the left of fixation. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 42, 296–307. https://doi.org/10.1037/xlm0000157. (PMID: 10.1037/xlm000015726322828)
Josephson, S. (2008). Keeping Your Readers’ Eyes on the Screen: An Eye-Tracking Study Comparing Sans Serif and Serif Typefaces. Visual Communication Quarterly, 15(1–2), 67–79. https://doi.org/10.1080/15551390801914595. (PMID: 10.1080/15551390801914595)
Keren, G., & Baggen, S. (1981). Recognition models of alphanumeric characters. Perception & Psychophysics, 29(3), 234–246.
Kinoshita, S., Robidoux, S., Mills, L., & Norris, D. (2014). Visual similarity effects on masked priming. Memory & Cognition, 42(5), 821–833.
Kirkby, J. A., Barrington, R. S., Drieghe, D., & Liversedge, S. P. (2022). Parafoveal processing and transposed-letter effects in dyslexic reading. Dyslexia, 28(3), 359–374. (PMID: 35818161)
Kliegl, R., Grabner, E., Rolfs, M., & Engbert, R. (2004). Length, frequency, and predictability effects of words on eye movements in reading. European Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 16(1–2), 262–284. https://doi.org/10.1080/09541440340000213. (PMID: 10.1080/09541440340000213)
Korshunov, D. S. (2012). Psikholingvisticheskiye modeli chteniya v bukvennykh i iyeroglificheskikh yazykakh [Psycholinguistic models of reading for alphabetic and logographic languages] [Thesis]. https://dissercat.com/content/psikholingvisticheskie-modeli-chteniya-v-bukvennykh-i-ieroglificheskikh-yazykakh . Accessed 30 Sept 2022.
Kuennapas, T., & Janson, A.-J. (1969). Multidimensional similarity of letters. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 28(1), 3–12. (PMID: 5777970)
Kuznetsova, A., Brockhoff, P. B., & Christensen, R. H. (2017). lmerTest package: Tests in linear mixed effects models. Journal of Statistical Software, 82, 1–26.
Lenth, R., Singmann, H., Love, J., Buerkner, P., & Herve, M. (2019). Emmeans: Estimated marginal means, aka least-squares means (Version 1.3. 4). Emmeans Estim. Marg. Means Aka Least-Sq. MeansHttps://CRAN.R-Project.Org/Package=Emmeans.
Levi, D. M. (2008). Crowding—An essential bottleneck for object recognition: A mini-review. Vision Research, 48(5), 635–654. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.visres.2007.12.009. (PMID: 10.1016/j.visres.2007.12.00918226828)
Liu, L., & Arditi, A. (2001). How crowding affects letter confusion. Optometry & Vision Science, 78(1), 50–55.
Marcet, A., & Perea, M. (2018a). Can I order a burger at rnacdonalds.com? Visual similarity effects of multi-letter combinations at the early stages of word recognition. Journal of Experimental Psychology. Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 44(5), 699–706. https://doi.org/10.1037/xlm0000477.
Marcet, A., & Perea, M. (2018b). Visual letter similarity effects during sentence reading: Evidence from the boundary technique. Acta Psychologica, 190, 142–149. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2018.08.007. (PMID: 10.1016/j.actpsy.2018.08.00730119047)
McConkie, G. W., & Rayner, K. (1975). The span of the effective stimulus during a fixation in reading. Perception & Psychophysics, 17(6), 578–586. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03203972. (PMID: 10.3758/BF03203972)
McConkie, G. W., & Rayner, K. (1976). Asymmetry of the perceptual span in reading. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 8(5), 365–368. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03335168. (PMID: 10.3758/BF03335168)
McGowan, V. A. (2015). The processing of spatial information during reading: Processing of previously read text and effects of adult age [Thesis, School of Psychology]. https://lra.le.ac.uk/handle/2381/31990.
Mueller, S. T., & Weidemann, C. T. (2012). Alphabetic letter identification: Effects of perceivability, similarity, and bias. Acta Psychologica, 139(1), 19–37. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2011.09.014. (PMID: 10.1016/j.actpsy.2011.09.01422036587)
Navarro, D. J., & Griffiths, T. L. (2008). Latent features in similarity judgments: A nonparametric Bayesian approach. Neural Computation, 20(11), 2597–2628. (PMID: 18533818)
New, B., & Grainger, J. (2011). On letter frequency effects. Acta Psychologica, 138(2), 322–328. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2011.07.001. (PMID: 10.1016/j.actpsy.2011.07.00121855049)
Ovink, G. W. (1938). Legibility, atmosphere-value and forms of printing types (Vol. 10). Leiden: AW Sijthoff.
Pelli, D. G., Burns, C. W., Farell, B., & Moore-Page, D. C. (2006). Feature detection and letter identification. Vision Research, 46(28), 4646–4674. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.visres.2006.04.023. (PMID: 10.1016/j.visres.2006.04.02316808957)
Perea, M., Mallouh, R. A., Mohammed, A., Khalifa, B., & Carreiras, M. (2018). Does visual letter similarity modulate masked form priming in young readers of Arabic? Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 169, 110–117. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2017.12.004. (PMID: 10.1016/j.jecp.2017.12.00429357989)
Petit, J.-P., & Grainger, J. (2002). Masked partial priming of letter perception. Visual Cognition, 9(3), 337–353.
Podgorny, P., & Garner, W. R. (1979). Reaction time as a measure of inter-and intraobject visual similarity: Letters of the alphabet. Perception & Psychophysics, 26(1), 37–52.
Popp, H. M. (1964). Visual discrimination of alphabet letters. The Reading Teacher, 17(4), 221–226.
Pušnik, N., Kovačević, D., Brozović, M., & Možina, K. (2014). Is legibility of typefaces designed for screen use the same for different languages?.
Rayner, K. (1975). The perceptual span and peripheral cues in reading. Cognitive Psychology, 7(1), 65–81. https://doi.org/10.1016/0010-0285(75)90005-5. (PMID: 10.1016/0010-0285(75)90005-5)
Rayner, K. (1998). Eye Movements in Reading and Information Processing: 20 Years of Research. Psychological Bulletin, 124(3), 372–422. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.124.3.372. (PMID: 10.1037/0033-2909.124.3.3729849112)
Rayner, K., Balota, D. A., & Pollatsek, A. (1986). Against parafoveal semantic preprocessing during eye fixations in reading. Canadian Journal of Psychology/revue Canadienne De Psychologie, 40, 473–483. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0080111. (PMID: 10.1037/h0080111)
Rayner, K., Castelhano, M. S., & Yang, J. (2010). Preview benefit during eye fixations in reading for older and younger readers. Psychology and Aging, 25, 714–718. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0019199. (PMID: 10.1037/a001919920853974)
Rayner, K., & Kaiser, J. S. (1975). Reading mutilated text. Journal of Educational Psychology, 67(2), 301–306. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0077015. (PMID: 10.1037/h0077015)
Rayner, K., Liversedge, S. P., White, S. J., & Vergilino-Perez, D. (2003). Reading Disappearing Text Cognitive Control of Eye Movements. Psychological Science, 14(4), 385–388. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9280.24483. (PMID: 10.1111/1467-9280.2448312807416)
Rayner, K., McConkie, G. W., & Ehrlich, S. (1978). Eye movements and integrating information across fixations. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 4, 529–544. https://doi.org/10.1037/0096-1523.4.4.529. (PMID: 10.1037/0096-1523.4.4.529722245)
Rayner, K., Pollatsek, A., & Binder, K. S. (1998). Phonological codes and eye movements in reading. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 24, 476–497. https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-7393.24.2.476. (PMID: 10.1037/0278-7393.24.2.4769530845)
Rayner, K., Schotter, E. R., & Drieghe, D. (2014). Lack of semantic parafoveal preview benefit in reading revisited. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 21(4), 1067–1072. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-014-0582-9. (PMID: 10.3758/s13423-014-0582-9)
Rayner, K., Well, A. D., Pollatsek, A., & Bertera, J. H. (1982). The availability of useful information to the right of fixation in reading. Perception & Psychophysics, 31(6), 537–550. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03204186. (PMID: 10.3758/BF03204186)
Reich, L. N., & Bedell, H. E. (2000). Relative legibility and confusions of letter acuity targets in the peripheral and central retina. Optometry & Vision Science, 77(5), 270–275.
Reingold, E. M., Reichle, E. D., Glaholt, M. G., & Sheridan, H. (2012). Direct lexical control of eye movements in reading: Evidence from a survival analysis of fixation durations. Cognitive Psychology, 65(2), 177–206. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cogpsych.2012.03.001. (PMID: 10.1016/j.cogpsych.2012.03.00122542804)
Risse, S., & Kliegl, R. (2011). Adult age differences in the perceptual span during reading. Psychology and Aging, 26, 451–460. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0021616. (PMID: 10.1037/a002161621401266)
Risse, S., & Kliegl, R. (2012). Processing in the perceptual span: Investigations with the n+2-boundary paradigm [Universitätsbibliothek der Universität Potsdam]. http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:kobv:517-opus-60414 . Accessed 15 Mar 2021.
Roethlein, B. E. (1912). The Relative Legibility of Different Faces of Printing Types. The American Journal of Psychology, 23(1), 1–36. https://doi.org/10.2307/1413112. (PMID: 10.2307/1413112)
Rothlein, D., & Rapp, B. (2017). The role of allograph representations in font-invariant letter identification. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 43, 1411–1429. https://doi.org/10.1037/xhp0000384. (PMID: 10.1037/xhp000038428368166)
Rumelhart, D. E., & Siple, P. (1974). Process of recognizing tachistoscopically presented words. Psychological Review, 81(2), 99. (PMID: 4817613)
Sattath, S., & Tversky, A. (1977). Additive similarity trees. Psychometrika, 42(3), 319–345.
Schotter, E. R., Angele, B., & Rayner, K. (2011). Parafoveal processing in reading. Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics, 74(1), 5–35. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13414-011-0219-2. (PMID: 10.3758/s13414-011-0219-2)
Schubert, T. M. (2015). Cognitive processes of letter and digit identification [Thesis, Johns Hopkins University]. https://jscholarship.library.jhu.edu/handle/1774.2/37937 . Accessed 14 Dec 2022.
Simpson, I. C., Mousikou, P., Montoya, J. M., & Defior, S. (2012). A letter visual-similarity matrix for Latin-based alphabets. Behavior Research Methods, 45(2), 431–439. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-012-0271-4. (PMID: 10.3758/s13428-012-0271-4)
Sokolov, Ye.N., Izmailov, Ch. A., & Zavgorodnyaya, V. L. (1985). Mnogomernoye shkalirovaniye znakovykh konfiguratsiy [Multidimensional scaling of character configurations]. Voprosy Psychologii, 1, 131–140.
Terekhina, A. Yu. (1978). Mnogomernyy analiz sub"yektivnykh dannykh o skhodstvakh ili razlichiyakh [Multivariate analysis of subjective data on similarities and differences]. Economics.
Tiffin-Richards, S. P., & Schroeder, S. (2015). Children’s and adults’ parafoveal processes in German: Phonological and orthographic effects. Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 27(5), 531–548.
Tinker, M. A. (1928). The relative legibility of the letters, the digits, and of certain mathematical signs. The Journal of General Psychology, 1(3–4), 472–496.
Townsend, J. T. (1971a). Alphabetic confusion: A test of models for individuals. Perception & Psychophysics, 9(6), 449–454.
Townsend, J. T. (1971b). Theoretical analysis of an alphabetic confusion matrix. Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics, 9(1), 40–50.
Tydgat, I., & Grainger, J. (2009). Serial position effects in the identification of letters, digits, and symbols. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 35(2), 480–498. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0013027. (PMID: 10.1037/a001302719331502)
Underwood, N. R., & McConkie, G. W. (1985). Perceptual Span for Letter Distinctions during Reading. Reading Research Quarterly, 20(2), 153–162. https://doi.org/10.2307/747752. (PMID: 10.2307/747752)
Van der Heijden, A. H., Malhas, M. S., & Van Den Roovaart, B. P. (1984). An empirical interletter confusion matrix for continuous-line capitals. Perception & Psychophysics.
Van Nes, F. L. (1983). New characters for Teletext with improved legibility. IPO Annual Progress Report, 18, 108–113.
Vasilev, M. R., & Angele, B. (2017). Parafoveal preview effects from word N+ 1 and word N+ 2 during reading: A critical review and Bayesian meta-analysis. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 24, 666–689.
Watson, A. B., & Ahumada, A. J. (2012). Modeling acuity for optotypes varying in complexity. Journal of Vision, 12(10), 19–19. (PMID: 23024356)
White, S. J., Johnson, R. L., Liversedge, S. P., & Rayner, K. (2008). Eye movements when reading transposed text: The importance of word-beginning letters. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 34(5), 1261–1276. https://doi.org/10.1037/0096-1523.34.5.1261. (PMID: 10.1037/0096-1523.34.5.126118823209)
White, S. J., Warren, T., & Reichle, E. D. (2011). Parafoveal preview during reading: Effects of sentence position. Journal of Experimental Psychology. Human Perception and Performance, 37(4), 1221–1238. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0022190.
Wiley, R. W., Wilson, C., & Rapp, B. (2016). The effects of alphabet and expertise on letter perception. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 42, 1186–1203. https://doi.org/10.1037/xhp0000213. (PMID: 10.1037/xhp000021326913778)
Yan, M., Zhou, W., Shu, H., & Kliegl, R. (2015). Perceptual span depends on font size during the reading of Chinese sentences. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 41, 209–219. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0038097. (PMID: 10.1037/a003809725329081)
Yan, M., Zhou, W., Shu, H., Yusupu, R., Miao, D., Krügel, A., & Kliegl, R. (2014). Eye movements guided by morphological structure: Evidence from the Uighur language. Cognition, 132(2), 181–215. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2014.03.008. (PMID: 10.1016/j.cognition.2014.03.00824813572)
Zhang, Z., & Wang, J. (2006). MLLE: Modified locally linear embedding using multiple weights. Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems, 19.
Contributed Indexing:
Keywords: Boundary paradigm; Confusion matrix; Cyrillic; Eye tracker; Font; Letter perception; Russian
Entry Date(s):
Date Created: 20240911 Date Completed: 20241031 Latest Revision: 20250307
Update Code:
20260130
DOI:
10.3758/s13428-024-02492-3
PMID:
39261445
Database:
MEDLINE
*Further Information*
*In the present study, we introduce parafoveal letter confusion matrices for the Russian language, which uses the Cyrillic script. To ensure that our confusion rates reflect parafoveal processing and no other effects, we employed an adapted boundary paradigm (Rayner, 1975) that prevented the participants from directly fixating the letter stimuli. Additionally, we assessed confusability under isolated and word-like (crowded) conditions using two modern fonts, since previous research showed that letter recognition depended on crowding and font (Coates, 2015; Pelli et al., 2006). Our additional goal was to gain insight into what letter features or configurational patterns might be essential for letter recognition in Russian; thus, we conducted exploratory clustering analysis on visual confusion scores to identify groups of similar letters. To support this analysis, we conducted a comprehensive review of over 20 studies that proposed crucial properties of Latin letters relevant to character perception. The summary of this review is valuable not only for our current study but also for future research in the field.
(© 2024. The Psychonomic Society, Inc.)*