*Result*: The mediating role of digital addiction in the relationship between cognitive disengagement syndrome and problem-solving skills.

*Background: There is a growing interest in the effects of Cognitive Disengagement Syndrome (CDS) on children. Despite concerns about the effects of CDS on cognitive abilities, especially in children, research is quite limited. It is important to understand the mechanisms of CDS on problem-solving skills.
Aim: This study aims to investigate the relationship of CDS with problem solving skills in children and also to examine the potential mediating role of digital addiction.
Method: The study was cross-sectional research involving 433 middle school children aged 11 and 14.
Results: Our results showed that there were positive relationships between CDS and digital addiction, negative relationships between CDS and problem solving skills, and negative relationships between digital addiction and problem solving skills. Moreover, our findings suggest that CDS is associated with problem-solving skills both directly and indirectly through digital addiction.
Conclusion: Intervention programs developed for children with or at risk of CDS should incorporate practices to enhance problem-solving skills and behavioral interventions to balance their use of digital tools.*

AN0190436317;0ux01jan.26;2025Dec26.05:49;v2.2.500

The mediating role of digital addiction in the relationship between cognitive disengagement syndrome and problem-solving skills 

Background: There is a growing interest in the effects of Cognitive Disengagement Syndrome (CDS) on children. Despite concerns about the effects of CDS on cognitive abilities, especially in children, research is quite limited. It is important to understand the mechanisms of CDS on problem-solving skills. Aim: This study aims to investigate the relationship of CDS with problem solving skills in children and also to examine the potential mediating role of digital addiction. Method: The study was cross-sectional research involving 433 middle school children aged 11 and 14. Results: Our results showed that there were positive relationships between CDS and digital addiction, negative relationships between CDS and problem solving skills, and negative relationships between digital addiction and problem solving skills. Moreover, our findings suggest that CDS is associated with problem-solving skills both directly and indirectly through digital addiction. Conclusion: Intervention programs developed for children with or at risk of CDS should incorporate practices to enhance problem-solving skills and behavioral interventions to balance their use of digital tools.

Keywords: Cognitive disengagement syndrome; problem solving; digital addiction; CDS; children

Introduction

Problem-solving is fundamental to executive function abilities and is characterized as a method that necessitates recognizing and defining challenges in comparatively unfamiliar circumstances, seeking alternative answers, and adopting the most suitable resolution (Araiza-Alba et al., [1]). Children's problem-solving processes are also described as a conscious alternation between cognitive and metacognitive activities (Vissariou & Desli, [56]). Working memory plays a pivotal role in the early stages of acquiring problem-solving and goal-driven behaviors. Hence, mastering the rudimentary aspects of these functions is imperative and poses significant challenges during early to mid-childhood. From ages 7–9, there is a notable augmentation in working memory, attentional capacity, and adaptability. Consequently, this middle childhood period becomes instrumental for advancing and maturing these competencies, which are central to a child's holistic development. Additionally, in modern educational systems, cultivating adaptable and applicable problem-solving abilities is paramount (Araiza-Alba et al., [1]). However, in recent years, studies have indicated that CDS, which has emerged as a significant research area, affects executive function processes related to problem-solving skills, such as attention and perception (Becker & Barkley, [9]; Y. Park & Lee, [47]).

Both cognitive and motor symptoms characterize CDS. Specifically, cognitive symptoms include cognitive disengagement manifested by daydreaming, spacey behavior, blank staring, being in a fog, confusion, and feeling as if in one's own world. Motor symptoms are evidenced by hypoactivity, slow-moving tendencies, drowsiness, and lethargy (Becker et al., [11]; Mayes et al., [43]). These symptoms typically emerge during childhood and can intensify as the child progresses in school. There are findings that this condition can lead to difficulties in the child's ability to perform essential functions (Becker et al., [10]). Thus, identifying the specific cognitive mechanisms and processes underlying CDS symptoms is crucial (Becker et al., [10]; Kofler et al., [36]). Moreover, it is known that CDS symptoms result in sleep disturbances and daytime sleepiness in individuals (Fredrick et al., [26]), social withdrawal (Fredrick & Becker, [24]), impairments in academic functionality (Fredrick & Becker, [25]), and disruptions or problems in neuropsychological functions such as memory, attention, language, decision-making, planning, organization, and social behavior (Creque & Willcutt, [19]). Furthermore, regarding executive function skills (EF), empirical research aimed at understanding the mechanisms between CDS and problem-solving skills and the interrelation of these variables is limited.

We argue that digital addiction (DA) may play a mediating role in the relationship between CDS and problem-solving skills. Recent research (Gul & Gul, [29]) has provided evidence for the relationship of CDS with internet addiction and internet gaming disorder. However, this evidence is limited. Among the significant reasons for this are that previous studies mostly focused on distinguishing between CDS and ADHD (Barkley, [6]; Bernad et al., [13]; McBurnett et al., [44]), the measurement tools for CDS are not yet widespread, and notably, CDS has only recently entered the research agenda. While some studies have separately examined the relationships among CDS, problem-solving skills, and digital addiction (Araujo Jiménez et al., [2]; Gul & Gul, [29]), we believe that mediating factors play a critical role in understanding the relationship of CDS with children's problem-solving skills. Indeed, considering these mediating factors may be crucial in developing behavioral and educational interventions. In this context, in our research, we developed a model testing the mediating role of DA in the relationship between CDS and problem-solving skills, and we aimed to test this model with actual data.

Relationship between DA and problem-solving skills

The concept of 'digital addiction' broadly refers to a range of technological dependencies, including internet addiction, an over-reliance on social media, and addiction to digital games (Christakis, [18]). The significance of DA as a research subject has recently amplified, given its escalating prevalence. Globally, the occurrence of DA differs; for instance, it stands at 8.90% in Eastern nations, whereas in Western regions, it is approximately 4.60% (Cemiloglu et al., [17]). Contemporary studies highlight a connection between DA and various outcomes, such as depression, anxiety, diminished sleep quality, challenges in personal upkeep, disruptions in daily routines, and impaired social interactions (Bell et al., [12]; Cemiloglu et al., [17]). Based on specific scholarly observations, there appears to be an inverse relationship between DA and cognitive processes like attention, perception, and memory (Dresp-Langley & Hutt, [22]; Prathap & Singh, [48]; Wang et al., [57]).

Studies on smartphone addiction and problem-solving ability indicate a significant relationship between these two factors. It is noted that students with smartphone addiction exhibit a decline in their problem-solving abilities. In other words, as smartphone addiction increases, problem-solving ability decreases. Similar research has reported that addictive tendencies are inversely proportional to skills such as critical thinking and problem-solving (Ran, [50]; Yüksel & Yılmaz, [58]). Studies indicate that social, psychological, and physical discomforts like communication disorders, anger, and back and neck pains led to problematic internet usage can adversely affect an individual's problem-solving abilities (İbili, [33]). For individuals to establish healthy interpersonal relationships and enhance their problem-solving skills, real-life experiences are essential. Children develop problem-solving abilities as they socialize and learn to cope with daily challenges. This situation may encourage children and adolescents to establish more real-life social relationships and reduce internet usage (Yüksel & Yılmaz, [58]). Lastly, excessive internet use can adversely affect an individual's ability to establish consistent relationships with others in a social and emotional context. This hinders the development of necessary skills, abilities, and patience for problem-solving while feeding feelings of shyness that negatively impact social relationships and psychological well-being (İbili, [33]).

Neurocognitive models have been widely used to describe the relationship between behavioral addiction and executive functions and problem-solving skills (Crivelli et al., [20]). Neurocognitive models suggest that behavioral addictions such as digital addiction may lead to impairments in executive functions and, thus, in attention, memory, and regulation ability, which are closely related to problem-solving. Indeed, it has been found that individuals with high internet addiction have abnormalities in the white matter integrity of the brain (Lin et al., [41]), weaknesses in working memory (Zhou et al., [60]), and impairments in cortical structures (Li et al., [40]). Farchakh et al. ([23]) found that increased video game addiction was notably linked to poorer episodic memory, diminished problem-solving abilities, weaker basic reading skills, impaired written expression skills, and reduced clinical attention in children. In an experimental study conducted by Reed ([51]), it was revealed that social media addiction was associated with more negative executive functioning skills. In addition, Ding et al. ([21]) synthesized the effects of digital addiction on brain function and structure in children and found that digital addiction has negative effects on children's brain structure and functionality. These strong relationships between behavioral addictions and neurocognitive disorders have led researchers to studies to measure the executive function skills of individuals with behavioral addictions (Balconi & Crivelli, [4]).

Based on the above explanations and research results, the first hypothesis of the research was established as follows:

H1:

Higher digital addiction in children is associated with lower problem-solving skills.

The relationship between CDS and DA

CDS represents a set of behavioral symptoms, including excessive getting lost in one's thoughts, fog, mental confusion, daydreaming, and slowed behavior and thinking (Becker, [8]; Kofler et al., [36]). Due to the relatively new concept of CDS, limited studies in the literature address CDS in conjunction with DA. Gul and Gul ([29]) revealed that the effects of CDS symptoms on Internet Addiction (IA) and Internet Gaming Disorder (IGD) were examined, and these variables were compared with symptoms of ADHD. For both IA and IGD, it was found that CDS symptoms had a stronger positive association than ADHD symptoms. While there was a positive relationship between slow thinking symptoms and IGD, there was no significant relationship between daydreaming symptoms and inattention, hyperactivity/impulsivity, and IGD. Another study found significant relationships between screen time and emotional problems, pro-social behaviors, inattention, hyperactivity, and CDS. This finding indicates that CDS is a transdiagnostic predictor of screen time (Gözpınar & Görmez, [28]).

Based on the explanations and research results above, the second hypothesis of the study has been formulated as follows:

H2:

Higher CDS in children is associated with higher digital addiction.

The relationship between problem-solving skills and CDS

EF can be defined as the cognitive abilities an individual uses to organize, manage, and regulate their thoughts, actions, and emotional responses. Such capabilities encompass self-restraint, both non-linguistic and linguistic working memory, structuring, addressing challenges, managing time, self-driven motivation, and regulating emotions (Barkley, [5]). Regarding problem-solving and goal attainment, executive function enables individuals to solve new and complex situations effectively and acceptably for themselves and society (Araujo Jiménez et al., [2]; Lezak, [39]). Research shows that when evaluated using EF rating scales, CDS can be associated with a pronounced deficiency in EF within daily life processes. This deficiency becomes especially evident when linked with challenges in problem-solving, self-regulation, and self-discipline (Barkley, [6]). In the studies of Jarrett et al. ([34]), a significant relationship was identified between CDS and problem-solving and emotional self-regulation abilities. These findings suggest that CDS affects a broad range of EF in daily life and is particularly associated with deficiencies in organizing thoughts and actions, rapidly responding to unexpected events, and producing solutions to problems.

Based on the above explanations and research results, the third hypothesis of the study was established as follows:

H3:

Higher CDS is associated with lower problem-solving skills in children.

The mediating role of DA in the relationship between CDS and problem-solving skills

As mentioned above, research has found a significant relationship between CDS and problem-solving and emotional self-regulation. Difficulties in regulating emotional states and resolving new problems are strongly associated with CDS symptoms. Moreover, it is believed that CDS may contribute to the rise of internet addiction and other technological dependencies (Gözpınar & Görmez, [28]; Gul & Gul, [29]). These relationships between the variables suggest that CDS may also be indirectly associated with problem-solving skills by promoting DA. In this context, the fourth hypothesis of the study is formulated as follows.

H4:

Digital addiction mediates the relationship between CDS and problem-solving skills.

While previous studies have separately addressed the relationships between variables, empirical findings generally highlight the importance of testing a model that examines the relationships among CDS, problem-solving skills, and DA. The current study investigates the mediating role of DA in the relationship between CDS and problem-solving ability in children (Figure 1).

Graph: Figure 1. The model to be tested for the relationship between CDS, problem-solving skills, and DA.

Method

This cross-sectional study examines DA's mediating role in the relationship between CDS and problem-solving skills. The University Ethics Committee had approved the study, and the Ministry of Education granted permission for its use in schools.

Participants

The participants of this research consist of 433 6th, 7th, and 8th-grade students who attend a middle school in Bingöl, Türkiye, and voluntarily participated in the study. Ethical approval is obtained from the local ethics committee. All the participants were informed about the purpose of the study. Of the participants, 242 are female (55.9%) and 191 are male (44.1%). The ages of the participants range between 11 and 14 with an average age of 12.47 (SD =.75). Of these, 201 are in the 6th grade (46.4%), 192 are in the 7th grade (44.3%), and 40 are in the 8th grade (9.3%). Eighty-seven of the participants (20.1%) evaluate their academic performance as low, 321 (74.1%) as medium, and 25 (5.8%) as high.

Measures

The study used demographic information, including gender, age, grade, and achievement status, the Sluggish Cognitive Tempo Self-Report Scale (SCT-SR), the Digital Addiction Scale for Teenagers (DAST), and the Problem Solving Inventory for Children (PSIC).

Sluggish Cognitive Tempo Self-Report Scale (SCT-SR)

The SCT-SR was developed by Gozpinar et al. ([27]) to evaluate CDS symptoms in children aged 11–18. The original form of the scale is in Turkish. The scale, which has a unidimensional structure, consists of 20 items. It is scored using a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 'Never = 1' to 'Very often = 5'. The Cronbach's alpha reliability coefficient of the scale was calculated as.95, while the test–retest result was found to be an Intraclass Correlation Coefficient (ICC) of.80. An increase in the scores from the scale indicates an increased risk of CDS. For this research, the Cronbach's alpha reliability coefficient of the scale was calculated as.88.

Digital Addiction Scale for Teenagers (DAST)

The DAST was developed by Seema et al. ([53]) and adapted into Turkish by O. Çelik et al. ([16]). The original form of the scale is unidimensional and consists of 10 items. The Turkish version's factor structure and item count remain consistent with the original. The scale is scored using a 5-point Likert scale, ranging from 'Never = 1' to 'Very often = 5'. O. Çelik et al. ([16]) calculated the Cronbach's alpha reliability coefficient of the scale as.90. An increase in the scores from the scale suggests a heightened risk for DA. For this research, the Cronbach's alpha reliability coefficient of the scale was calculated as.85.

Problem Solving Inventory for Children (PSIC)

The PSIC was developed by Serin et al. ([54]) to measure the problem-solving skills of primary school students (grades 4–8). The original inventory is in Turkish and has a tri-factorial structure relating to confidence, self-control, and avoidance in problem-solving skills. The scale consists of 24 items. The dimensions of self-control and avoidance are reverse-scored, allowing for a total score to be derived from the inventory. The scale uses a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 'Never = 1' to 'Very often = 5'. An increase in scores signifies improved problem-solving skills. Serin et al. ([54]) calculated the overall Cronbach's alpha reliability coefficient of the scale as.80, which was found to be.85 in this research.

Data analysis

Data analyses were conducted using SPSS 21.0 and the PROCESS macro (Model 4) developed by Hayes ([32]). Before the analyses, assumptions of normality for univariate and multivariate analyses were examined. Within this context, it was observed that the skewness (−.18,.68) and kurtosis (−.09, −.38) values for all variables were within the cut-off points for normal distribution (Tabachnick & Fidell, [55]). The suitability of the data for multivariate analyses was assessed by calculating the tolerance value and variance inflation factor (VIF). The tolerance value was calculated as (.74), and the VIF as (1.34). Tolerance values close to 1 and VIF values less than 10 indicate no multicollinearity issue among the variables (Seçer, [52]). Descriptive statistics (mean, standard deviation, and correlation) were utilized in the second step. In the final stage, mediation analysis was conducted with a sample size of 5,000 and a 95% confidence interval (CI). For the indirect effect to be significant, the value of 0 should not be within the CI (MacKinnon, [42]). In the model, while CDS is the independent variable and problem-solving skill is the dependent variable, DA serves as the mediator; gender, age, and socioeconomic status are included as control variables.

Results

Preliminary analyses

Means, minimum-maximum values, standard deviations, and correlation analysis results related to the variables are presented in Table 1. According to the results of the correlation analysis, CDS is positively correlated with DA (r =.504, p <.01) and negatively correlated with problem-solving skills (r= −.583, p <.01). Additionally, DA has a significant negative correlation with problem-solving skills (r= −.467, p <.01).

Table 1. Descriptive statistics and correlation analysis results.

<table><tbody><tr><td>Variables</td><td>Cognitive Disengagement Syndrome</td><td>Digital Addiction</td><td>Problem-solving skills</td></tr><tr><td>Cognitive Disengagement Syndrome</td><td>-</td><td>.504&#42;</td><td>&#8722;.583&#42;</td></tr><tr><td>Digital Addiction</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>&#8722;.467&#42;&#42;</td></tr><tr><td>Problem-solving skills</td><td>-</td><td>-</td><td>-</td></tr><tr><td>Mean</td><td>48.42</td><td>23.57</td><td>79.99</td></tr><tr><td>Min.-Max.</td><td>20&#8211;99</td><td>10&#8211;50</td><td>37&#8211;120</td></tr><tr><td>Standard deviation</td><td>14.29</td><td>9.00</td><td>15.77</td></tr></tbody></table>

1 **p<.01.

Mediation analysis

To determine the mediating role of DA in the relationship between CDS and problem-solving skills, analyses were conducted using Model 4 of the Process Macro in SPSS. In all analyses, gender, age, and socio-economic status were added to the model as control variables. The analysis results include both the outcomes related to the regression models and the direct, indirect, and total effects. Results pertaining to the regression models are presented in Table 2, while those related to direct and indirect effects are presented in Figure 2.

Graph: Figure 2. Direct and indirect effects.

Table 2. Regression-based results on the mediation of DA in the relationship between CDS and problem-solving skills.

<table><thead><tr><td>Model 1</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td>Outcome variable: DA</td></tr><tr><td>Predictor variables</td><td>B</td><td>SE</td><td>t</td><td>95% CI</td><td>Model R²</td><td>F</td></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td>Gender</td><td>.615</td><td>.74</td><td>.82</td><td>&#8722;.85;2.08</td><td>.26</td><td>37.88&#42;</td></tr><tr><td>Age</td><td>.764</td><td>.51</td><td>1.48</td><td>&#8722;.24;1.78</td><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>Socio-economic status</td><td>1.046</td><td>.78</td><td>1.32</td><td>&#8722;.50;2.59</td><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>CDS</td><td>.318</td><td>0.2</td><td>12.13&#42;</td><td /><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>Model 2</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td>Outcome variable: PSS</td></tr><tr><td>Predictor variables</td><td>B</td><td>SE</td><td>t</td><td>95% CI</td><td>Model R²</td><td>F</td></tr><tr><td>Gender</td><td>.979</td><td>1.23</td><td>.79</td><td>&#8722;1.45;3.41</td><td>.34</td><td>52.80&#42;</td></tr><tr><td>Age</td><td>&#8722;.727</td><td>.85</td><td>&#8722;.85</td><td>&#8722;2.40;.95</td><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>Socio-economic status</td><td>&#8722;172</td><td>1.30</td><td>&#8722;.13</td><td>&#8722;2.73;2.38</td><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>CDS</td><td>&#8722;.639</td><td>.04</td><td>&#8722;14.73&#42;</td><td>&#8722;.72;-.55</td><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>Model 3</td><td /><td /><td /><td /><td>Outcome variable: PSS</td></tr><tr><td>Predictor variables</td><td>B</td><td>SE</td><td>t</td><td>95% CI</td><td>Model R²</td><td>F</td></tr><tr><td>Gender</td><td>1.23</td><td>1.20</td><td>1.02</td><td>&#8722;1.13;3.59</td><td>.38</td><td>55.60&#42;</td></tr><tr><td>Age</td><td>&#8722;.41</td><td>.83</td><td>&#8722;.49</td><td>&#8722;2.04;1.22</td><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>Socio-economic status</td><td>.25</td><td>1.26</td><td>.20</td><td>&#8722;2.23;2.74</td><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>CDS</td><td>&#8722;.50</td><td>.04</td><td>&#8722;10.43&#42;</td><td>&#8722;.60;-.41</td><td /><td /></tr><tr><td>DA</td><td>&#8722;.40</td><td>.07</td><td>&#8722;5.26&#42;</td><td>&#8722;.56;-.25</td><td /><td /></tr></tbody></table>

2 <bold>Note</bold>: *p<.001, B unstandardised beta coefficient.

In Model 1, with DA as the dependent variable, CDS was added as the predictor variable. The model was significant (F = 37.88, R2=.26, p <.001), and it was determined that CDS significantly predicts DA in a positive direction (B =.318, p <.001). In Model 2, also described as the total effect model, while CDS is the predictor variable, the problem-solving ability is the dependent variable. This model too is significant (F = 55.60, R2=.34, p <.001), and it was observed that CDS significantly predicts problem-solving skills in a negative direction (B = −.639). In the mediation Model 3, with problem-solving skills as the dependent variable, all variables were added to the model. This model is also significant (F = 52.80, R2 =.38, p <.001) and remained significant even with the inclusion of DA, although the power of CDS to predict problem-solving skills was reduced (B=−.50, p <.001). In the mediation model, even if the prediction of CDS decreases with the inclusion of DA, its significant contribution to the model persists, indicating that DA is a partial mediator. Moreover, when examining the direct and indirect associations (Figure 2), the indirect association of CDS with problem-solving skills (c'= −.13 (95% CI [−.19, −.07]) is significant. This indirect association is also interpreted as a mediation effect (Kline, [35]).

Discussion

In this study, we investigated how CDS and DA are associated with the problem-solving abilities of middle school students. Drawing from past research findings, we formulated hypotheses and established a model in alignment with these suppositions. Our hypotheses were evaluated using data collected from our study's sample group.

Our preliminary hypothesis was that DA would have a negative association with problem-solving skills in children. Our findings suggest that higher levels of DA in children might be associated with lower problem-solving skills. This result is consistent with previous research on the relationship between DA and problem-solving skills (Hasan & Jaber, [31]). High levels of DA are significantly associated with weaker problem-solving abilities and attention deficits (Farchakh et al., [23]). However, Hasan and Jaber ([30]) have suggested that children might exhibit more problem-solving behaviors by using alternative solution strategies rather than searching in digital environments, thus potentially avoiding the digital medium. Nevertheless, previous studies have shown that DA negatively affects children's attention span and working memory (M.-H. Park et al., [46]; Prathap & Singh, [48]). Thus, these cognitive limitations in children suggest that DA may inhibit problem-solving skills.

The study's second hypothesis was that CDS would have a positive relationship with DA in children. Our results support this hypothesis; as the risk of CDS in children increases, the risk of addiction also rises. These findings are consistent with the limited research on the relationship between CDS and DA (Gözpınar & Görmez, [28]; Gul & Gul, [29]). Studies have indicated that CDS is negatively related to social competence (Lee et al., [38]) and positively associated with social problems (Raiker et al., [49]). It has been observed that children with higher CDS scores tend to be more introverted and face more social problems compared to those with lower CDS scores (Carlson & Mann, [14]). Individuals with CDS may exhibit internalizing behaviors, leaning towards being more introverted and shy. Such behaviors decrease the likelihood of social interactions. This can result in children with CDS taking less initiative in social situations and being perceived as less confident and less self-controlled (Mueller et al., [45]). The problems encountered in social relationships might also be associated with an increased withdrawal from peer interactions (Becker, [7]). Moreover, prior studies have shown that children exhibiting introverted behaviors with weak social competence have higher levels of DA (Aslan et al., [3]; O. T. Çelik & Konan, [15]). Research by Yurdagül et al. ([59]) indicated that adolescents with higher levels of loneliness and general and social anxiety tend to engage more in digital activities. Individuals struggling with social relationships may seek to fulfill their social interaction needs through various mediums. Digital tools can play this intermediary role in this context, helping individuals meet their interaction needs and feel safer. Additionally, digital environments might serve as a refuge for those facing difficulties in social relationships.

Our study's third and fourth hypotheses were regarding the direct and indirect relationships of CDS with problem-solving skills in children. The results of our study show that CDS is directly and indirectly associated with problem-solving skills by promoting DA in children. There is no direct research on the relationship between CDS and problem-solving skills. In this respect, our study provides the first evidence for CDS's direct and indirect relationships with problem-solving skills. However, previous research has examined the relationship between CDS and problem-solving skills from the perspective of EF. Symptoms of inattention in ADHD and CDS have emerged as strong predictors of self-reported EF. Inattention is the most significant predictor of motivation and time management, while CDS is the key predictor for self-regulation and problem-solving (Jarrett et al., [34]). CDS has been associated with slower information processing under increased cognitive challenges. These issues point to difficulties in planning, switching between tasks, protecting from distractions, and memory-related challenges (Krone et al., [37]). CDS is related to daily problems associated with organization and problem-solving but is inconsistent with other areas of daily executive function (Becker et al., [11]). Considering CDS's relationship with attention level, memory, self-regulation skills, and cognitive flexibility, its association with problem-solving skills seems natural. Our mediation analyses suggest that DA mediates the relationship between CDS and problem-solving skills. In other words, CDS promoting DA is associated with lower problem-solving skills in children. Our study provides important findings regarding the direct and indirect relationship between CDS and problem-solving skills. However, additional research is needed to better understand these relationships. Furthermore, it is important to examine the relationship of CDS with problem-solving skills in more depth, with studies focusing on more specific subskills and daily life functions. In this way, the complex relationships between CDS and problem-solving skills can be better understood, and the potential effects of CDS on children's functioning can be better managed.

Limitations and future directions

This research presents comprehensive and significant findings; however, like any empirical study, this research also has potential limitations. Firstly, due to the study's cross-sectional design, it is impossible to establish causal relationships between variables. Secondly, CDS, problem-solving, and DA measurements based on children's self-reports may introduce bias. Thirdly, uncontrolled potential moderator or mediator variables during the study could have influenced the results. In this context, future research can take these potential variables into consideration.

Future research could examine the relationship between CDS, DA, and problem-solving skills in more detail and provide a more comprehensive understanding of these relationships through studies involving different age groups and social contexts. This could include longitudinal studies to investigate changes over time, including diverse cultural and socio-economic contexts, to identify potential variations and investigate additional mediating or moderating variables such as emotional regulation, cognitive flexibility, or family support systems. Such approaches would provide a deeper and more nuanced understanding of how these factors shape problem-solving skills (Becker & Barkley, [9]; Gul & Gul, [29]; Jarrett et al., [34]).

Conclusion

This research has taken an important step towards elucidating the relationship between CDS, DA, and problem-solving skills in children. The results show that DA has a negative relationship with problem-solving skills and mediates the relationship between CDS and problem-solving skills. These findings provide important information for educators, families, and policymakers. In educational processes and daily life, it is very important to carefully manage children's digital activities and develop strategies to support their cognitive processes. Furthermore, intervention programs that support social relationships in children with CDS can reduce the risk of DA. Such intervention programs may also indirectly support problem-solving skills in children at high risk for CDS.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Data availability statement

The authors may share data on request.

Authors' contributions

CK: Conceptualization, methodology, investigation (data collection), writing – original draft, writing review, and editing. OTC: Conceptualization, methodology, investigation (data collection), formal analysis, writing – original draft, writing review, validation, writing-review, and editing.

Ethical approval

Ethical approval has been obtained from the University Ethics Committee.

Research involving human and animal rights

All procedures were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 helsinki declaration.

By Osman Tayyar Çelik and Cihangir Kaçmaz

Reported by Author; Author