*Result*: Beyond Wealth: The Impact of Robot Adoption on Chronic Diseases.
Title:
Beyond Wealth: The Impact of Robot Adoption on Chronic Diseases.
Authors:
Liu Y; School of Applied Economics, Renmin University of China, Beijing, China., Wang Z; School of Economics, Peking University, Beijing, China.; Postdoctoral Research Department, China Cinda Asset Management Co., Beijing, China., Jin X; China Center for Economic Research, National School of Development, Peking University, Beijing, China., Lu A; School of Applied Economics, Renmin University of China, Beijing, China.
Source:
Health economics [Health Econ] 2026 Feb; Vol. 35 (2), pp. 145-174. Date of Electronic Publication: 2025 Oct 18.
Publication Type:
Journal Article
Language:
English
Journal Info:
Publisher: Wiley Country of Publication: England NLM ID: 9306780 Publication Model: Print-Electronic Cited Medium: Internet ISSN: 1099-1050 (Electronic) Linking ISSN: 10579230 NLM ISO Abbreviation: Health Econ Subsets: MEDLINE
Imprint Name(s):
Original Publication: Chichester ; New York : Wiley, c1992-
MeSH Terms:
References:
Abegunde, D. O., C. D. Mathers, T. Adam, M. Ortegon, and K. Strong. 2007. “The Burden and Costs of Chronic Diseases in Low‐Income and Middle‐Income Countries.” Lancet 370, no. 9603: 1929–1938. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140‐6736(07)61696‐1.
Abeliansky, A. L., M. Beulmann, and K. Prettner. 2024. “Are They Coming for Us? Industrial Robots and the Mental Health of Workers.” Research Policy 53, no. 3: 104956. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.respol.2024.104956.
Acemoglu, D., and P. Restrepo. 2020. “Robots and Jobs: Evidence From US Labor Markets.” Journal of Political Economy 128, no. 6: 2188–2244. https://doi.org/10.1086/705716.
Acemoglu, D., and P. Restrepo. 2022. “Tasks, Automation, and the Rise in U.S. Wage Inequality.” Econometrica 90, no. 5: 1973–2016. https://doi.org/10.3982/ecta19815.
Adachi, D., D. Kawaguchi, and Y. U. Saito. 2024. “Robots and Employment: Evidence From Japan, 1978–2017.” Journal of Labor Economics 42, no. 2: 591–634. https://doi.org/10.1086/723205.
Adão, R., M. Kolesár, and E. Morales. 2019. “Shift‐Share Designs: Theory and Inference.” Quarterly Journal of Economics 134, no. 4: 1949–2010. https://doi.org/10.1093/qje/qjz025.
Aghion, P., C. Antonin, S. Bunel, and X. Jaravel. 2020. “What Are the Labor and Product Market Effects of Automation? New Evidence From France.” CEPR Discussion Paper No. DP14443, SSRN.
Akerman, A., I. Gaarder, and M. Mogstad. 2015. “The Skill Complementarity of Broadband Internet.” Quarterly Journal of Economics 130, no. 4: 1781–1824. https://doi.org/10.1093/qje/qjv028.
Aksoy, C. G., B. Özcan, and J. Philipp. 2021. “Robots and the Gender Pay Gap in Europe.” European Economic Review 134: 103693. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.euroecorev.2021.103693.
Anelli, M., O. Giuntella, and L. Stella. 2021. “Robots, Marriageable Men, Family, and Fertility.” Journal of Human Resources 59, no. 2: 443–469. https://doi.org/10.3368/jhr.1020‐11223r1.
Autor, D. H. 2015. “Why Are There Still So Many Jobs? the History and Future of Workplace Automation.” Journal of Economic Perspectives 29, no. 3: 3–30. https://doi.org/10.1257/jep.29.3.3.
Autor, D. H., and D. Dorn. 2013. “The Growth of Low‐Skill Service Jobs and the Polarization of the US Labor Market.” American Economic Review 103, no. 5: 1553–1597. https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.103.5.1553.
Autor, D. H., F. Levy, and R. J. Murnane. 2003. “The Skill Content of Recent Technological Change: An Empirical Exploration.” Quarterly Journal of Economics 118, no. 4: 1279–1333. https://doi.org/10.1162/003355303322552801.
Barrio‐Cortes, J., A. Castaño‐Reguillo, M. T. Beca‐Martínez, M. Bandeira‐de Oliveira, C. López‐Rodríguez, and M. Á. Jaime‐Sisó. 2021. “Chronic Diseases in the Geriatric Population: Morbidity and Use of Primary Care Services According to Risk Level.” BMC Geriatrics 21, no. 1: 278. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12877‐021‐02217‐7.
Becker, G. S. 1965. “A Theory of the Allocation of Time.” Economic Journal 75, no. 299: 493–517. https://doi.org/10.2307/2228949.
Blasco, S., J. Rochut, and B. Rouland. 2024. “Displaced or Depressed? Working in Automatable Jobs and Mental Health.” Industrial Relations: A Journal of Economy and Society: irel.12356.
Bloom, D. E., S. Chen, M. Kuhn, M. E. McGovern, L. Oxley, and K. Prettner. 2020. “The Economic Burden of Chronic Diseases: Estimates and Projections for China, Japan, and South Korea.” Journal of the Economics of Ageing 17: 100163. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeoa.2018.09.002.
Böckerman, P., A. Bryson, and P. Ilmakunnas. 2012. “Does High Involvement Management Improve Worker Wellbeing?” Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization 84, no. 2: 660–680. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jebo.2012.09.005.
Bombardini, M., and B. Li. 2020. “Trade, Pollution and Mortality in China.” Journal of International Economics 125: 103321. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jinteco.2020.103321.
Boone, J., J. C. Van Ours, J.‐P. Wuellrich, and J. Zweimüller. 2011. “Recessions Are Bad for Workplace Safety.” Journal of Health Economics 30, no. 4: 764–773. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhealeco.2011.05.013.
Borusyak, K., P. Hull, and X. Jaravel. 2025. “A Practical Guide to Shift‐Share Instruments.” Journal of Economic Perspectives 39, no. 1: 181–204. https://doi.org/10.1257/jep.20231370.
Borusyak, K., P. Hull, and X. Jaravel. 2022. “Quasi‐Experimental Shift‐Share Research Designs.” Review of Economic Studies 89, no. 1: 181–213. https://doi.org/10.1093/restud/rdab030.
Cameron, A. C., and P. K. Trivedi. 1991. “The Role of Income and Health Risk in the Choice of Health Insurance: Evidence From Australia.” Journal of Public Economics 45, no. 1: 1–28. https://doi.org/10.1016/0047‐2727(91)90045‐4.
Case, A., and A. Deaton. 2015. “Rising Morbidity and Mortality in Midlife Among White Non‐Hispanic Americans in the 21st Century.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 112, no. 49: 15078–15083. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1518393112.
Cesarini, D., E. Lindqvist, R. Östling, and B. Wallace. 2016. “Wealth, Health, and Child Development: Evidence From Administrative Data on Swedish Lottery Players.” Quarterly Journal of Economics 131, no. 2: 687–738. https://doi.org/10.1093/qje/qjw001.
Charles, K. K., and P. DeCicca. 2008. “Local Labor Market Fluctuations and Health: Is There a Connection and for Whom?” Journal of Health Economics 27, no. 6: 1532–1550. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhealeco.2008.06.004.
Charles, K. K., and M. Stephens Jr. 2004. “Job Displacement, Disability, and Divorce.” Journal of Labor Economics 22, no. 2: 489–522. https://doi.org/10.1086/381258.
Chen, C., B. F. Carl, and G. Presidente. 2022. “Automation or Globalization? The Impacts of Robots and Chinese Imports on Jobs in the United Kingdom.” Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization 204: 528–542. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jebo.2022.10.027.
Chen, C.‐M., I.‐C. Lee, Y.‐Yu Su, J. Mullan, and H.‐C. Chiu. 2017. “The Longitudinal Relationship Between Mental Health Disorders and Chronic Disease for Older Adults: A Population‐based Study.” International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry 32, no. 9: 1017–1026. https://doi.org/10.1002/gps.4561.
Cheng, H., R. Jia, D. Li, and H. Li. 2019. “The Rise of Robots in China.” Journal of Economic Perspectives 33, no. 2: 71–88. https://doi.org/10.1257/jep.33.2.71.
Chou, W. L., and Z. Wang. 2009. “Regional Inequality in China’s Health Care Expenditures.” Supplement, Health Economics 18, no. S2: S137–S146. https://doi.org/10.1002/hec.1511.
Costa‐Font, J., S. Fleche, and R. Pagan. 2024. “The Labour Market Returns to Sleep.” Journal of Health Economics 93: 102840. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhealeco.2023.102840.
Dauth, W., S. Findeisen, J. Suedekum, and N. Woessner. 2021. “The Adjustment of Labor Markets to Robots.” Journal of the European Economic Association 19, no. 6: 3104–3153. https://doi.org/10.1093/jeea/jvab012.
de Chaisemartin, C., and Z. Lei. 2023. “More Robust Estimators for Instrumental‐Variable Panel Designs, With an Application to the Effect of Imports From China on US Employment.” Preprint, arXiv: 2103.06437: arXiv.
Dillender, M., and M. McInerney. 2020. “The Role of Mexican Immigration to the United States in Improved Workplace Safety for Natives From 1980 to 2015.” Journal of Health Economics 70: 102280. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhealeco.2019.102280.
Ding, H., Y. Chen, M. Yu, et al. 2021. “The Effects of Chronic Disease Management in Primary Health Care: Evidence From Rural China.” Journal of Health Economics 80: 102539. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhealeco.2021.102539.
Ervasti, J., J. Pentti, S. T. Nyberg, et al. 2021. “Long Working Hours and Risk of 50 Health Conditions and Mortality Outcomes: A Multicohort Study in Four European Countries.” Lancet Regional Health – Europe 11: 100212. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lanepe.2021.100212.
Fan, H., Y. Hu, and L. Tang. 2021. “Labor Costs and the Adoption of Robots in China.” Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization 186: 608–631. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jebo.2020.11.024.
Fan, H., F. Lin, and S. Lin. 2020. “The Hidden Cost of Trade Liberalization: Input Tariff Shocks and Worker Health in China.” Journal of International Economics 126: 103349. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jinteco.2020.103349.
Fang, J. 2008. “The Chinese Health Care Regulatory Institutions in an Era of Transition.” Social Science & Medicine 66, no. 4: 952–962. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2007.11.016.
Fleurbaey, M. 2009. “Beyond GDP: The Quest for a Measure of Social Welfare.” Journal of Economic Literature 47, no. 4: 1029–1075. https://doi.org/10.1257/jel.47.4.1029.
Ge, S., and Yu Zhou. 2020. “Robots, Computers, and the Gender Wage Gap.” Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization 178: 194–222. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jebo.2020.07.014.
Gihleb, R., O. Giuntella, L. Stella, and T. Wang. 2022. “Industrial Robots, Workers’ Safety, and Health.” Labour Economics 78: 102205. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.labeco.2022.102205.
Giuntella, O., Lu Yi, and T. Wang. 2024. “How Do Workers Adjust to Robots? Evidence From China.” Economic Journal 135, no. 666: 637–652. https://doi.org/10.1093/ej/ueae086.
Goh, J., P. Jeffrey, and S. A. Zenios. 2016. “The Relationship Between Workplace Stressors and Mortality and Health Costs in the United States.” Management Science 62, no. 2: 608–628. https://doi.org/10.1287/mnsc.2014.2115.
Goldsmith‐Pinkham, P., I. Sorkin, and S. Henry. 2020. “Bartik Instruments: What, When, Why, and How.” American Economic Review 110, no. 8: 2586–2624. https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.20181047.
Gordon, R. H., and W. Li. 2012. “Provincial and Local Governments in China: Fiscal Institutions and Government Behavior.” In Capitalizing China, 337–369. University of Chicago Press.
Graetz, G., and G. Michaels. 2018. “Robots at Work.” Review of Economics and Statistics 100, no. 5: 753–768. https://doi.org/10.1162/rest_a_00754.
Green, F. 2004. “Work Intensification, Discretion, and the Decline in Well‐Being at Work.” Eastern Economic Journal 30, no. 4: 615–625. https://www.jstor.org/stable/40326152.
Grossman, M. 1972. “On the Concept of Health Capital and the Demand for Health.” Journal of Political Economy 80, no. 2: 223–255. https://doi.org/10.1086/259880.
Gunadi, C., and H. Ryu. 2021. “Does the Rise of Robotic Technology Make People Healthier?” Health Economics 30, no. 9: 2047–2062. https://doi.org/10.1002/hec.4361.
Haenlein, M., and A. Kaplan. 2019. “A Brief History of Artificial Intelligence: On the Past, Present, and Future of Artificial Intelligence.” California Management Review 61, no. 4: 5–14. https://doi.org/10.1177/0008125619864925.
Han, Li, and J. K.‐S. Kung. 2015. “Fiscal Incentives and Policy Choices of Local Governments: Evidence From China.” Journal of Development Economics 116: 89–104. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdeveco.2015.04.003.
Hirvonen, J., A. Stenhammar, and J. Tuhkuri. 2022. New Evidence on the Effect of Technology on Employment and Skill Demand. Taloustieto Oy.
Hu, H., H. Liang, and H. Wang. 2021. “Longitudinal Study of the Earliest Pilot of Tiered Healthcare System Reforms in China: Will the New Type of Chronic Disease Management Be Effective?” Social Science & Medicine 285: 114284. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2021.114284.
Huang, W., and H. Liu. 2023. “Early Childhood Exposure to Health Insurance and Adolescent Outcomes: Evidence From Rural China.” Journal of Development Economics 160: 102925. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdeveco.2022.102925.
International Federation of Robotics. 2023. “World Robotics Industrial Robots Report.”.
Ireland, A., D. Johnston, and R. Knott. 2023. “Heat and Worker Health.” Journal of Health Economics 91: 102800. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhealeco.2023.102800.
Janke, K., D. W. Johnston, C. Propper, and M. A. Shields. 2020. “The Causal Effect of Education on Chronic Health Conditions in the UK.” Journal of Health Economics 70: 102252. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhealeco.2019.102252.
Jones, C. I., and P. J. Klenow. 2016. “Beyond GDP? Welfare Across Countries and Time.” American Economic Review 106, no. 9: 2426–2457. https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.20110236.
Jurkat, A., R. Klump, and F. Schneider. 2022. “Tracking the Rise of Robots: The IFR Database.” Journal of Economics and Statistics 242, no. 5–6: 669–689. https://doi.org/10.1515/jbnst‐2021‐0059.
Kahneman, D., and A. Deaton. 2010. “High Income Improves Evaluation of Life But Not Emotional well‐Being.” In Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 107, no. 38: 16489–16493. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1011492107.
Kennedy, B. K., S. L. Berger, A. Brunet, et al. 2014. “Geroscience: Linking Aging to Chronic Disease.” Cell 159, no. 4: 709–713. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2014.10.039.
Kim, S., and K. Koh. 2021. “The Effects of Income on Health: Evidence From Lottery Wins in Singapore.” Journal of Health Economics 76: 102414. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhealeco.2020.102414.
Kivimäki, M., S. T. Nyberg, G. David Batty, et al. 2012. “Job Strain as a Risk Factor for Coronary Heart Disease: A Collaborative meta‐analysis of Individual Participant Data.” Lancet 380, no. 9852: 1491–1497. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140‐6736(12)60994‐5.
Koch, M., I. Manuylov, and M. Smolka. 2021. “Robots and Firms.” Economic Journal 131, no. 638: 2553–2584. https://doi.org/10.1093/ej/ueab009.
Lai, T.‐kei, Yi Lu, and T. Ng. 2022. “Import Competition and Workplace Safety in the U.S. Manufacturing Sector.” Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization 203: 24–42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jebo.2022.08.033.
Larsson, S. C., and S. Burgess. 2021. “Causal Role of High Body Mass Index in Multiple Chronic Diseases: A Systematic Review and Meta‐Analysis of Mendelian Randomization Studies.” BMC Medicine 19, no. 1: 320. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12916‐021‐02188‐x.
Li, P., Lu Yi, and J. Wang. 2016. “Does Flattening Government Improve Economic Performance? Evidence From China.” Journal of Development Economics 123: 18–37. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdeveco.2016.07.002.
Lordan, G., and E.‐J. Stringer. 2022. “People Versus Machines: The Impact of Being in an Automatable Job on Australian Worker’s Mental Health and Life Satisfaction.” Economics and Human Biology 46: 101144. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ehb.2022.101144.
Lu, C., Z. Zhang, and X. Lan. 2019. “Impact of China’s Referral Reform on the Equity and Spatial Accessibility of Healthcare Resources: A Case Study of Beijing.” Social Science & Medicine 235: 112386. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2019.112386.
Luo, W., L. Tang, Y. Yang, and X. Zou. 2025. “Robots as Guardians: Industrial Automation and Workplace Safety in China.” Journal of Development Economics 172: 103381. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdeveco.2024.103381.
Marmot, M. 2005. “Social Determinants of Health Inequalities.” Lancet 365, no. 9464: 1099–1104. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140‐6736(05)71146‐6.
Marmot, M. G., G. D. Smith, S. Stansfeld, et al. 2013. “Health Inequalities Among British Civil Servants: The Whitehall II Study.” In Stress and the Brain, 61–67. Routledge.
National Health Commission of the People’s Republic of China. 2020. “Report on the Nutrition and Chronic Disease Status of Chinese Residents 2020.”.
O’Brien, R., E. F. Bair, and A. S. Venkataramani. 2022. “Death by Robots? Automation and Working‐Age Mortality in the United States.” Demography 59, no. 2: 607–628. https://doi.org/10.1215/00703370‐9774819.
Ohrnberger, J., E. Fichera, and M. Sutton. 2017. “The Relationship Between Physical and Mental Health: A Mediation Analysis.” Social Science & Medicine 195: 42–49. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2017.11.008.
Pan, J., H. Zhao, X. Wang, and X. Shi. 2016. “Assessing Spatial Access to Public and Private Hospitals in Sichuan, China: The Influence of the Private Sector on the Healthcare Geography in China.” Social Science & Medicine 170: 35–45. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2016.09.042.
Pan, X.‐F., L. Wang, and A Pan. 2021. “Epidemiology and Determinants of Obesity in China.” Lancet Diabetes & Endocrinology 9, no. 6: 373–392. https://doi.org/10.1016/s2213‐8587(21)00045‐0.
Patel, P. C., S. Devaraj, M. J. Hicks, and E. J. Wornell. 2018. “County‐Level Job Automation Risk and Health: Evidence From the United States.” Social Science & Medicine 202: 54–60. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2018.02.025.
Pierce, J. R., and P. K. Schott. 2020. “Trade Liberalization and Mortality: Evidence From US Counties.” American Economic Review: Insights 2, no. 1: 47–63. https://doi.org/10.1257/aeri.20180396.
Sabia, S., A. Dugravot, D. Léger, C. Ben Hassen, M. Kivimaki, and A. Singh‐Manoux. 2022. “Association of Sleep Duration at Age 50, 60, and 70 Years With Risk of Multimorbidity in the UK: 25‐Year Follow‐Up of the Whitehall II Cohort Study.” PLoS Medicine 19, no. 10: e1004109. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1004109.
Seeman, T. E., B. S. McEwen, J. W. Rowe, and B. H. Singer. 2001. “Allostatic Load as a Marker of Cumulative Biological Risk: Macarthur Studies of Successful Aging.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 98, no. 8: 4770–4775. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.081072698.
Shi, J., W. Yang, and Ye Yuan. 2025. “Cover More for Less: Targeted Drug Coverage, Chronic Disease Management, and Medical Spending.” Journal of Development Economics 172: 103399. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdeveco.2024.103399.
Su, B., D. Li, J. Xie, et al. 2023. “Chronic Disease in China: Geographic and Socioeconomic Determinants Among Persons Aged 60 and Older.” Journal of the American Medical Directors Association 24, no. 2: 206–212. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jamda.2022.10.002.
Sullivan, D., and T. Von Wachter. 2009. “Job Displacement and Mortality: An Analysis Using Administrative Data *.” Quarterly Journal of Economics 124, no. 3: 1265–1306. https://doi.org/10.1162/qjec.2009.124.3.1265.
Sun, Y., and C. Cao. 2021. “Planning for Science: China’s “Grand Experiment” and Global Implications.” Humanities and Social Sciences Communications 8, no. 1: 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599‐021‐00895‐7.
Wang, L., L. Kong, F. Wu, Y. Bai, and R. Burton. 2005. “Preventing Chronic Diseases in China.” Lancet 366, no. 9499: 1821–1824. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140‐6736(05)67344‐8.
Wang, M., L. Xiang, S. Xu, et al. 2019. “Trends in Smoking Prevalence and Implication for Chronic Diseases in China: Serial National Cross‐Sectional Surveys From 2003 to 2013.” Lancet Respiratory Medicine 7, no. 1: 35–45. https://doi.org/10.1016/s2213‐2600(18)30432‐6.
Wang, Z., Q. Zhang, and Li‐An Zhou. 2020. “Career Incentives of City Leaders and Urban Spatial Expansion in China.” Review of Economics and Statistics 102, no. 5: 897–911. https://doi.org/10.1162/rest_a_00862.
Wooldridge, J. M. 2019. “Correlated Random Effects Models With Unbalanced Panels.” Journal of Econometrics 211, no. 1: 137–150. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeconom.2018.12.010.
World Health Organization. 2022. “Invisible Numbers: The True Extent of Noncommunicable Diseases and what to Do About Them.”.
Yamaguchi, S. 2018. “Changes in Returns to Task‐Specific Skills and Gender Wage Gap.” Journal of Human Resources 53, no. 1: 32–70. https://doi.org/10.3368/jhr.53.1.1214‐6813r2.
Yan, X., S. Yu, X. Zhang, and Y. Wu. 2024. “Robot and Labor Health: Evidence Based on Macro and Micro Perspectives.” Systems Engineering ‐ Theory & Practice 44, no. 1: 148–165. https://doi.org/10.12011/SETP2023‐1692.
Yang, G., L. Kong, W. Zhao, et al. 2008. “Emergence of Chronic Non‐Communicable Diseases in China.” Lancet 372, no. 9650: 1697–1705. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140‐6736(08)61366‐5.
Yang, G., Yu Wang, Y. Wu, J. Yang, and X. Wan. 2015. “The Road to Effective Tobacco Control in China.” Lancet 385, no. 9972: 1019–1028. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140‐6736(15)60174‐x.
Yip, W., H. Fu, A. T. Chen, et al. 2019. “10 Years of Health‐Care Reform in China: Progress and Gaps in Universal Health Coverage.” Lancet 394, no. 10204: 1192–1204. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140‐6736(19)32136‐1.
Yip, W., and W. C. Hsiao. 2008. “The Chinese Health System at a Crossroads.” Health Affairs 27, no. 2: 460–468. https://doi.org/10.1377/hlthaff.27.2.460.
Abeliansky, A. L., M. Beulmann, and K. Prettner. 2024. “Are They Coming for Us? Industrial Robots and the Mental Health of Workers.” Research Policy 53, no. 3: 104956. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.respol.2024.104956.
Acemoglu, D., and P. Restrepo. 2020. “Robots and Jobs: Evidence From US Labor Markets.” Journal of Political Economy 128, no. 6: 2188–2244. https://doi.org/10.1086/705716.
Acemoglu, D., and P. Restrepo. 2022. “Tasks, Automation, and the Rise in U.S. Wage Inequality.” Econometrica 90, no. 5: 1973–2016. https://doi.org/10.3982/ecta19815.
Adachi, D., D. Kawaguchi, and Y. U. Saito. 2024. “Robots and Employment: Evidence From Japan, 1978–2017.” Journal of Labor Economics 42, no. 2: 591–634. https://doi.org/10.1086/723205.
Adão, R., M. Kolesár, and E. Morales. 2019. “Shift‐Share Designs: Theory and Inference.” Quarterly Journal of Economics 134, no. 4: 1949–2010. https://doi.org/10.1093/qje/qjz025.
Aghion, P., C. Antonin, S. Bunel, and X. Jaravel. 2020. “What Are the Labor and Product Market Effects of Automation? New Evidence From France.” CEPR Discussion Paper No. DP14443, SSRN.
Akerman, A., I. Gaarder, and M. Mogstad. 2015. “The Skill Complementarity of Broadband Internet.” Quarterly Journal of Economics 130, no. 4: 1781–1824. https://doi.org/10.1093/qje/qjv028.
Aksoy, C. G., B. Özcan, and J. Philipp. 2021. “Robots and the Gender Pay Gap in Europe.” European Economic Review 134: 103693. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.euroecorev.2021.103693.
Anelli, M., O. Giuntella, and L. Stella. 2021. “Robots, Marriageable Men, Family, and Fertility.” Journal of Human Resources 59, no. 2: 443–469. https://doi.org/10.3368/jhr.1020‐11223r1.
Autor, D. H. 2015. “Why Are There Still So Many Jobs? the History and Future of Workplace Automation.” Journal of Economic Perspectives 29, no. 3: 3–30. https://doi.org/10.1257/jep.29.3.3.
Autor, D. H., and D. Dorn. 2013. “The Growth of Low‐Skill Service Jobs and the Polarization of the US Labor Market.” American Economic Review 103, no. 5: 1553–1597. https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.103.5.1553.
Autor, D. H., F. Levy, and R. J. Murnane. 2003. “The Skill Content of Recent Technological Change: An Empirical Exploration.” Quarterly Journal of Economics 118, no. 4: 1279–1333. https://doi.org/10.1162/003355303322552801.
Barrio‐Cortes, J., A. Castaño‐Reguillo, M. T. Beca‐Martínez, M. Bandeira‐de Oliveira, C. López‐Rodríguez, and M. Á. Jaime‐Sisó. 2021. “Chronic Diseases in the Geriatric Population: Morbidity and Use of Primary Care Services According to Risk Level.” BMC Geriatrics 21, no. 1: 278. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12877‐021‐02217‐7.
Becker, G. S. 1965. “A Theory of the Allocation of Time.” Economic Journal 75, no. 299: 493–517. https://doi.org/10.2307/2228949.
Blasco, S., J. Rochut, and B. Rouland. 2024. “Displaced or Depressed? Working in Automatable Jobs and Mental Health.” Industrial Relations: A Journal of Economy and Society: irel.12356.
Bloom, D. E., S. Chen, M. Kuhn, M. E. McGovern, L. Oxley, and K. Prettner. 2020. “The Economic Burden of Chronic Diseases: Estimates and Projections for China, Japan, and South Korea.” Journal of the Economics of Ageing 17: 100163. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeoa.2018.09.002.
Böckerman, P., A. Bryson, and P. Ilmakunnas. 2012. “Does High Involvement Management Improve Worker Wellbeing?” Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization 84, no. 2: 660–680. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jebo.2012.09.005.
Bombardini, M., and B. Li. 2020. “Trade, Pollution and Mortality in China.” Journal of International Economics 125: 103321. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jinteco.2020.103321.
Boone, J., J. C. Van Ours, J.‐P. Wuellrich, and J. Zweimüller. 2011. “Recessions Are Bad for Workplace Safety.” Journal of Health Economics 30, no. 4: 764–773. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhealeco.2011.05.013.
Borusyak, K., P. Hull, and X. Jaravel. 2025. “A Practical Guide to Shift‐Share Instruments.” Journal of Economic Perspectives 39, no. 1: 181–204. https://doi.org/10.1257/jep.20231370.
Borusyak, K., P. Hull, and X. Jaravel. 2022. “Quasi‐Experimental Shift‐Share Research Designs.” Review of Economic Studies 89, no. 1: 181–213. https://doi.org/10.1093/restud/rdab030.
Cameron, A. C., and P. K. Trivedi. 1991. “The Role of Income and Health Risk in the Choice of Health Insurance: Evidence From Australia.” Journal of Public Economics 45, no. 1: 1–28. https://doi.org/10.1016/0047‐2727(91)90045‐4.
Case, A., and A. Deaton. 2015. “Rising Morbidity and Mortality in Midlife Among White Non‐Hispanic Americans in the 21st Century.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 112, no. 49: 15078–15083. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1518393112.
Cesarini, D., E. Lindqvist, R. Östling, and B. Wallace. 2016. “Wealth, Health, and Child Development: Evidence From Administrative Data on Swedish Lottery Players.” Quarterly Journal of Economics 131, no. 2: 687–738. https://doi.org/10.1093/qje/qjw001.
Charles, K. K., and P. DeCicca. 2008. “Local Labor Market Fluctuations and Health: Is There a Connection and for Whom?” Journal of Health Economics 27, no. 6: 1532–1550. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhealeco.2008.06.004.
Charles, K. K., and M. Stephens Jr. 2004. “Job Displacement, Disability, and Divorce.” Journal of Labor Economics 22, no. 2: 489–522. https://doi.org/10.1086/381258.
Chen, C., B. F. Carl, and G. Presidente. 2022. “Automation or Globalization? The Impacts of Robots and Chinese Imports on Jobs in the United Kingdom.” Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization 204: 528–542. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jebo.2022.10.027.
Chen, C.‐M., I.‐C. Lee, Y.‐Yu Su, J. Mullan, and H.‐C. Chiu. 2017. “The Longitudinal Relationship Between Mental Health Disorders and Chronic Disease for Older Adults: A Population‐based Study.” International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry 32, no. 9: 1017–1026. https://doi.org/10.1002/gps.4561.
Cheng, H., R. Jia, D. Li, and H. Li. 2019. “The Rise of Robots in China.” Journal of Economic Perspectives 33, no. 2: 71–88. https://doi.org/10.1257/jep.33.2.71.
Chou, W. L., and Z. Wang. 2009. “Regional Inequality in China’s Health Care Expenditures.” Supplement, Health Economics 18, no. S2: S137–S146. https://doi.org/10.1002/hec.1511.
Costa‐Font, J., S. Fleche, and R. Pagan. 2024. “The Labour Market Returns to Sleep.” Journal of Health Economics 93: 102840. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhealeco.2023.102840.
Dauth, W., S. Findeisen, J. Suedekum, and N. Woessner. 2021. “The Adjustment of Labor Markets to Robots.” Journal of the European Economic Association 19, no. 6: 3104–3153. https://doi.org/10.1093/jeea/jvab012.
de Chaisemartin, C., and Z. Lei. 2023. “More Robust Estimators for Instrumental‐Variable Panel Designs, With an Application to the Effect of Imports From China on US Employment.” Preprint, arXiv: 2103.06437: arXiv.
Dillender, M., and M. McInerney. 2020. “The Role of Mexican Immigration to the United States in Improved Workplace Safety for Natives From 1980 to 2015.” Journal of Health Economics 70: 102280. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhealeco.2019.102280.
Ding, H., Y. Chen, M. Yu, et al. 2021. “The Effects of Chronic Disease Management in Primary Health Care: Evidence From Rural China.” Journal of Health Economics 80: 102539. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhealeco.2021.102539.
Ervasti, J., J. Pentti, S. T. Nyberg, et al. 2021. “Long Working Hours and Risk of 50 Health Conditions and Mortality Outcomes: A Multicohort Study in Four European Countries.” Lancet Regional Health – Europe 11: 100212. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lanepe.2021.100212.
Fan, H., Y. Hu, and L. Tang. 2021. “Labor Costs and the Adoption of Robots in China.” Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization 186: 608–631. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jebo.2020.11.024.
Fan, H., F. Lin, and S. Lin. 2020. “The Hidden Cost of Trade Liberalization: Input Tariff Shocks and Worker Health in China.” Journal of International Economics 126: 103349. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jinteco.2020.103349.
Fang, J. 2008. “The Chinese Health Care Regulatory Institutions in an Era of Transition.” Social Science & Medicine 66, no. 4: 952–962. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2007.11.016.
Fleurbaey, M. 2009. “Beyond GDP: The Quest for a Measure of Social Welfare.” Journal of Economic Literature 47, no. 4: 1029–1075. https://doi.org/10.1257/jel.47.4.1029.
Ge, S., and Yu Zhou. 2020. “Robots, Computers, and the Gender Wage Gap.” Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization 178: 194–222. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jebo.2020.07.014.
Gihleb, R., O. Giuntella, L. Stella, and T. Wang. 2022. “Industrial Robots, Workers’ Safety, and Health.” Labour Economics 78: 102205. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.labeco.2022.102205.
Giuntella, O., Lu Yi, and T. Wang. 2024. “How Do Workers Adjust to Robots? Evidence From China.” Economic Journal 135, no. 666: 637–652. https://doi.org/10.1093/ej/ueae086.
Goh, J., P. Jeffrey, and S. A. Zenios. 2016. “The Relationship Between Workplace Stressors and Mortality and Health Costs in the United States.” Management Science 62, no. 2: 608–628. https://doi.org/10.1287/mnsc.2014.2115.
Goldsmith‐Pinkham, P., I. Sorkin, and S. Henry. 2020. “Bartik Instruments: What, When, Why, and How.” American Economic Review 110, no. 8: 2586–2624. https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.20181047.
Gordon, R. H., and W. Li. 2012. “Provincial and Local Governments in China: Fiscal Institutions and Government Behavior.” In Capitalizing China, 337–369. University of Chicago Press.
Graetz, G., and G. Michaels. 2018. “Robots at Work.” Review of Economics and Statistics 100, no. 5: 753–768. https://doi.org/10.1162/rest_a_00754.
Green, F. 2004. “Work Intensification, Discretion, and the Decline in Well‐Being at Work.” Eastern Economic Journal 30, no. 4: 615–625. https://www.jstor.org/stable/40326152.
Grossman, M. 1972. “On the Concept of Health Capital and the Demand for Health.” Journal of Political Economy 80, no. 2: 223–255. https://doi.org/10.1086/259880.
Gunadi, C., and H. Ryu. 2021. “Does the Rise of Robotic Technology Make People Healthier?” Health Economics 30, no. 9: 2047–2062. https://doi.org/10.1002/hec.4361.
Haenlein, M., and A. Kaplan. 2019. “A Brief History of Artificial Intelligence: On the Past, Present, and Future of Artificial Intelligence.” California Management Review 61, no. 4: 5–14. https://doi.org/10.1177/0008125619864925.
Han, Li, and J. K.‐S. Kung. 2015. “Fiscal Incentives and Policy Choices of Local Governments: Evidence From China.” Journal of Development Economics 116: 89–104. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdeveco.2015.04.003.
Hirvonen, J., A. Stenhammar, and J. Tuhkuri. 2022. New Evidence on the Effect of Technology on Employment and Skill Demand. Taloustieto Oy.
Hu, H., H. Liang, and H. Wang. 2021. “Longitudinal Study of the Earliest Pilot of Tiered Healthcare System Reforms in China: Will the New Type of Chronic Disease Management Be Effective?” Social Science & Medicine 285: 114284. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2021.114284.
Huang, W., and H. Liu. 2023. “Early Childhood Exposure to Health Insurance and Adolescent Outcomes: Evidence From Rural China.” Journal of Development Economics 160: 102925. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdeveco.2022.102925.
International Federation of Robotics. 2023. “World Robotics Industrial Robots Report.”.
Ireland, A., D. Johnston, and R. Knott. 2023. “Heat and Worker Health.” Journal of Health Economics 91: 102800. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhealeco.2023.102800.
Janke, K., D. W. Johnston, C. Propper, and M. A. Shields. 2020. “The Causal Effect of Education on Chronic Health Conditions in the UK.” Journal of Health Economics 70: 102252. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhealeco.2019.102252.
Jones, C. I., and P. J. Klenow. 2016. “Beyond GDP? Welfare Across Countries and Time.” American Economic Review 106, no. 9: 2426–2457. https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.20110236.
Jurkat, A., R. Klump, and F. Schneider. 2022. “Tracking the Rise of Robots: The IFR Database.” Journal of Economics and Statistics 242, no. 5–6: 669–689. https://doi.org/10.1515/jbnst‐2021‐0059.
Kahneman, D., and A. Deaton. 2010. “High Income Improves Evaluation of Life But Not Emotional well‐Being.” In Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 107, no. 38: 16489–16493. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1011492107.
Kennedy, B. K., S. L. Berger, A. Brunet, et al. 2014. “Geroscience: Linking Aging to Chronic Disease.” Cell 159, no. 4: 709–713. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2014.10.039.
Kim, S., and K. Koh. 2021. “The Effects of Income on Health: Evidence From Lottery Wins in Singapore.” Journal of Health Economics 76: 102414. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhealeco.2020.102414.
Kivimäki, M., S. T. Nyberg, G. David Batty, et al. 2012. “Job Strain as a Risk Factor for Coronary Heart Disease: A Collaborative meta‐analysis of Individual Participant Data.” Lancet 380, no. 9852: 1491–1497. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140‐6736(12)60994‐5.
Koch, M., I. Manuylov, and M. Smolka. 2021. “Robots and Firms.” Economic Journal 131, no. 638: 2553–2584. https://doi.org/10.1093/ej/ueab009.
Lai, T.‐kei, Yi Lu, and T. Ng. 2022. “Import Competition and Workplace Safety in the U.S. Manufacturing Sector.” Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization 203: 24–42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jebo.2022.08.033.
Larsson, S. C., and S. Burgess. 2021. “Causal Role of High Body Mass Index in Multiple Chronic Diseases: A Systematic Review and Meta‐Analysis of Mendelian Randomization Studies.” BMC Medicine 19, no. 1: 320. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12916‐021‐02188‐x.
Li, P., Lu Yi, and J. Wang. 2016. “Does Flattening Government Improve Economic Performance? Evidence From China.” Journal of Development Economics 123: 18–37. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdeveco.2016.07.002.
Lordan, G., and E.‐J. Stringer. 2022. “People Versus Machines: The Impact of Being in an Automatable Job on Australian Worker’s Mental Health and Life Satisfaction.” Economics and Human Biology 46: 101144. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ehb.2022.101144.
Lu, C., Z. Zhang, and X. Lan. 2019. “Impact of China’s Referral Reform on the Equity and Spatial Accessibility of Healthcare Resources: A Case Study of Beijing.” Social Science & Medicine 235: 112386. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2019.112386.
Luo, W., L. Tang, Y. Yang, and X. Zou. 2025. “Robots as Guardians: Industrial Automation and Workplace Safety in China.” Journal of Development Economics 172: 103381. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdeveco.2024.103381.
Marmot, M. 2005. “Social Determinants of Health Inequalities.” Lancet 365, no. 9464: 1099–1104. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140‐6736(05)71146‐6.
Marmot, M. G., G. D. Smith, S. Stansfeld, et al. 2013. “Health Inequalities Among British Civil Servants: The Whitehall II Study.” In Stress and the Brain, 61–67. Routledge.
National Health Commission of the People’s Republic of China. 2020. “Report on the Nutrition and Chronic Disease Status of Chinese Residents 2020.”.
O’Brien, R., E. F. Bair, and A. S. Venkataramani. 2022. “Death by Robots? Automation and Working‐Age Mortality in the United States.” Demography 59, no. 2: 607–628. https://doi.org/10.1215/00703370‐9774819.
Ohrnberger, J., E. Fichera, and M. Sutton. 2017. “The Relationship Between Physical and Mental Health: A Mediation Analysis.” Social Science & Medicine 195: 42–49. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2017.11.008.
Pan, J., H. Zhao, X. Wang, and X. Shi. 2016. “Assessing Spatial Access to Public and Private Hospitals in Sichuan, China: The Influence of the Private Sector on the Healthcare Geography in China.” Social Science & Medicine 170: 35–45. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2016.09.042.
Pan, X.‐F., L. Wang, and A Pan. 2021. “Epidemiology and Determinants of Obesity in China.” Lancet Diabetes & Endocrinology 9, no. 6: 373–392. https://doi.org/10.1016/s2213‐8587(21)00045‐0.
Patel, P. C., S. Devaraj, M. J. Hicks, and E. J. Wornell. 2018. “County‐Level Job Automation Risk and Health: Evidence From the United States.” Social Science & Medicine 202: 54–60. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2018.02.025.
Pierce, J. R., and P. K. Schott. 2020. “Trade Liberalization and Mortality: Evidence From US Counties.” American Economic Review: Insights 2, no. 1: 47–63. https://doi.org/10.1257/aeri.20180396.
Sabia, S., A. Dugravot, D. Léger, C. Ben Hassen, M. Kivimaki, and A. Singh‐Manoux. 2022. “Association of Sleep Duration at Age 50, 60, and 70 Years With Risk of Multimorbidity in the UK: 25‐Year Follow‐Up of the Whitehall II Cohort Study.” PLoS Medicine 19, no. 10: e1004109. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1004109.
Seeman, T. E., B. S. McEwen, J. W. Rowe, and B. H. Singer. 2001. “Allostatic Load as a Marker of Cumulative Biological Risk: Macarthur Studies of Successful Aging.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 98, no. 8: 4770–4775. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.081072698.
Shi, J., W. Yang, and Ye Yuan. 2025. “Cover More for Less: Targeted Drug Coverage, Chronic Disease Management, and Medical Spending.” Journal of Development Economics 172: 103399. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdeveco.2024.103399.
Su, B., D. Li, J. Xie, et al. 2023. “Chronic Disease in China: Geographic and Socioeconomic Determinants Among Persons Aged 60 and Older.” Journal of the American Medical Directors Association 24, no. 2: 206–212. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jamda.2022.10.002.
Sullivan, D., and T. Von Wachter. 2009. “Job Displacement and Mortality: An Analysis Using Administrative Data *.” Quarterly Journal of Economics 124, no. 3: 1265–1306. https://doi.org/10.1162/qjec.2009.124.3.1265.
Sun, Y., and C. Cao. 2021. “Planning for Science: China’s “Grand Experiment” and Global Implications.” Humanities and Social Sciences Communications 8, no. 1: 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599‐021‐00895‐7.
Wang, L., L. Kong, F. Wu, Y. Bai, and R. Burton. 2005. “Preventing Chronic Diseases in China.” Lancet 366, no. 9499: 1821–1824. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140‐6736(05)67344‐8.
Wang, M., L. Xiang, S. Xu, et al. 2019. “Trends in Smoking Prevalence and Implication for Chronic Diseases in China: Serial National Cross‐Sectional Surveys From 2003 to 2013.” Lancet Respiratory Medicine 7, no. 1: 35–45. https://doi.org/10.1016/s2213‐2600(18)30432‐6.
Wang, Z., Q. Zhang, and Li‐An Zhou. 2020. “Career Incentives of City Leaders and Urban Spatial Expansion in China.” Review of Economics and Statistics 102, no. 5: 897–911. https://doi.org/10.1162/rest_a_00862.
Wooldridge, J. M. 2019. “Correlated Random Effects Models With Unbalanced Panels.” Journal of Econometrics 211, no. 1: 137–150. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeconom.2018.12.010.
World Health Organization. 2022. “Invisible Numbers: The True Extent of Noncommunicable Diseases and what to Do About Them.”.
Yamaguchi, S. 2018. “Changes in Returns to Task‐Specific Skills and Gender Wage Gap.” Journal of Human Resources 53, no. 1: 32–70. https://doi.org/10.3368/jhr.53.1.1214‐6813r2.
Yan, X., S. Yu, X. Zhang, and Y. Wu. 2024. “Robot and Labor Health: Evidence Based on Macro and Micro Perspectives.” Systems Engineering ‐ Theory & Practice 44, no. 1: 148–165. https://doi.org/10.12011/SETP2023‐1692.
Yang, G., L. Kong, W. Zhao, et al. 2008. “Emergence of Chronic Non‐Communicable Diseases in China.” Lancet 372, no. 9650: 1697–1705. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140‐6736(08)61366‐5.
Yang, G., Yu Wang, Y. Wu, J. Yang, and X. Wan. 2015. “The Road to Effective Tobacco Control in China.” Lancet 385, no. 9972: 1019–1028. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140‐6736(15)60174‐x.
Yip, W., H. Fu, A. T. Chen, et al. 2019. “10 Years of Health‐Care Reform in China: Progress and Gaps in Universal Health Coverage.” Lancet 394, no. 10204: 1192–1204. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140‐6736(19)32136‐1.
Yip, W., and W. C. Hsiao. 2008. “The Chinese Health System at a Crossroads.” Health Affairs 27, no. 2: 460–468. https://doi.org/10.1377/hlthaff.27.2.460.
Grant Information:
72303235 National Natural Science Foundation of China; 72333004 National Natural Science Foundation of China; Big Data and Responsible Artificial Intelligence for National Governance, Renmin University of China
Contributed Indexing:
Keywords: chronic diseases; labor market performance; robot adoption; skill–labor complementarity; willingness to pay
Entry Date(s):
Date Created: 20251018 Date Completed: 20260107 Latest Revision: 20260107
Update Code:
20260130
DOI:
10.1002/hec.70052
PMID:
41108723
Database:
MEDLINE
*Further Information*
*While the labor market effects of industrial robots have been extensively studied, their broader health implications, particularly on chronic diseases, remain unexplored. This study fills this gap by linking China's national-industry robot adoption data to individual health records from the China Health and Nutrition Survey (CHNS). Employing a city-level Bartik-type instrumental variable strategy, our Two-Stage Least Squares (2SLS) estimates reveal that an increase of one robot per thousand workers in a city reduces local probability of individuals having chronic diseases by 8.67%. The mechanisms driving these health benefits include better working conditions, better physical and mental well-being, and healthier lifestyle choices. A cost-benefit analysis suggests these health benefits are substantial, significantly outweighing the robots' acquisition costs. Our findings from China highlight a crucial, yet overlooked, positive externality of automation on public health in developing economies.
(© 2025 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)*