*Result*: A wearable multi-parameter electrochemical detection and signal processing system for real-time sweat analysis.
Title:
A wearable multi-parameter electrochemical detection and signal processing system for real-time sweat analysis.
Authors:
Liu G; School of Mechanical Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, 5 South Zhongguancun Street, Haidian District, Beijing, 100081, China.; Yangtze Delta Region Academy of Beijing Institute of Technology, Jiaxing, 314011, China., Wang H; School of Mechanical Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, 5 South Zhongguancun Street, Haidian District, Beijing, 100081, China., Zhang P; Beijing Hospital of Traditional Chinese Medicine , Affiliated to Capital Medical University, Beijing, China., Liu Y; School of Mechanical Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, 5 South Zhongguancun Street, Haidian District, Beijing, 100081, China.; Yangtze Delta Region Academy of Beijing Institute of Technology, Jiaxing, 314011, China., Tan Q; School of Mechanical Engineering, Jiangsu University of Technology, 213001, Zhongwu Avenue, Changzhou, China., Jin X; School of Mechanical Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, 5 South Zhongguancun Street, Haidian District, Beijing, 100081, China.; Yangtze Delta Region Academy of Beijing Institute of Technology, Jiaxing, 314011, China., Li C; School of Mechanical Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, 5 South Zhongguancun Street, Haidian District, Beijing, 100081, China. mecjli@bit.edu.cn.; Yangtze Delta Region Academy of Beijing Institute of Technology, Jiaxing, 314011, China. mecjli@bit.edu.cn.
Source:
Mikrochimica acta [Mikrochim Acta] 2025 Aug 19; Vol. 192 (9), pp. 604. Date of Electronic Publication: 2025 Aug 19.
Publication Type:
Journal Article
Language:
English
Journal Info:
Publisher: Springer-Verlag Country of Publication: Austria NLM ID: 7808782 Publication Model: Electronic Cited Medium: Internet ISSN: 1436-5073 (Electronic) Linking ISSN: 00263672 NLM ISO Abbreviation: Mikrochim Acta Subsets: MEDLINE
Imprint Name(s):
Original Publication: Wien ; New York : Springer-Verlag.
MeSH Terms:
References:
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Min J, Tu J, Xu C, Lukas H, Shin S, Yang Y et al (2023) Skin-interfaced wearable sweat sensors for precision medicine. Chem Rev 123:5049–5138. (PMID: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.2c008233697150410406569)
Apoorva S, Nguyen NT, Sreejith KR (2024) Recent developments and future perspectives of microfluidics and smart technologies in wearable devices. Lab Chip 24:1833–1866. (PMID: 10.1039/D4LC00089G38476112)
Liu C, Xu T, Wang D, Zhang X (2020) The role of sampling in wearable sweat sensors. Talanta. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.talanta.2020.120801. (PMID: 10.1016/j.talanta.2020.120801335927857833523)
Hu M, Wang Z, Zhang L, Lin S, Liao J (2025) A microfluidic patch for wireless wearable electrochemical detection of sweat metabolites. Sens Actuators, B Chem. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.snb.2024.136604. (PMID: 10.1016/j.snb.2024.136604)
Nyein HYY, Tai LC, Ngo QP, Chao M, Zhang GB, Gao W et al (2018) A wearable microfluidic sensing patch for dynamic sweat secretion analysis. ACS Sens 3:944–952. (PMID: 10.1021/acssensors.7b0096129741360)
Chaiyo S, Kunpatee K, Kalcher K, Yakoh A, Pungjunun K (2024) 3D paper-based device integrated with a battery-less NFC potentiostat for nonenzymatic detection of cholesterol. ACS Meas Sci Au 4:432–441. (PMID: 10.1021/acsmeasuresciau.4c000123918435811342457)
Beck JJ, Alenicheva V, Rahn KL, Russo MJ, Baldo TA, Henry CS (2023) Evaluating the performance of an inexpensive, commercially available, NFC-powered and smartphone controlled potentiostat for electrochemical sensing. Electroanalysis. https://doi.org/10.1002/elan.202200552. (PMID: 10.1002/elan.202200552)
Kukkar D, Zhang D, Jeon BH, Kim KH (2022) Recent advances in wearable biosensors for non-invasive monitoring of specific metabolites and electrolytes associated with chronic kidney disease: performance evaluation and future challenges. TrAC Trends Anal Chem. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trac.2022.116570. (PMID: 10.1016/j.trac.2022.116570)
Mohan AV, Rajendran V, Mishra RK, Jayaraman M (2020) Recent advances and perspectives in sweat based wearable electrochemical sensors. TrAC Trends in Analytical Chemistry 131.
Gao F, Liu C, Zhang L, Liu T, Wang Z, Song Z et al (2023) Wearable and flexible electrochemical sensors for sweat analysis: a review. Microsyst Nanoeng 9:1. (PMID: 10.1038/s41378-022-00443-6365975119805458)
Lee I, Probst D, Klonoff D, Sode K (2021) Continuous glucose monitoring systems—current status and future perspectives of the flagship technologies in biosensor research. Biosens Bioelectron. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bios.2021.113054. (PMID: 10.1016/j.bios.2021.113054349958378662841)
Kalita N, Gogoi S, Minteer SD, Goswami P (2023) Advances in bioelectrode design for developing electrochemical biosensors. ACS Meas Sci Au 3:404–433. (PMID: 10.1021/acsmeasuresciau.3c000343814502710740130)
Khosropour H, Keramat M, Tasca F, Laiwattanapaisal W (2024) A comprehensive review of the application of Zr-based metal–organic frameworks for electrochemical sensors and biosensors. Microchim Acta 191:449. (PMID: 10.1007/s00604-024-06515-w)
Parrilla M, Cuartero M, Crespo GA (2019) Wearable potentiometric ion sensors. TrAC Trends Anal Chem 110:303–320. (PMID: 10.1016/j.trac.2018.11.024)
Pérez D, Orozco J (2022) Wearable electrochemical biosensors to measure biomarkers with complex blood-to-sweat partition such as proteins and hormones. Microchim Acta 189:127. (PMID: 10.1007/s00604-022-05228-2)
Gao W, Luo X, Liu Y, Zhao Y, Cui Y (2021) Development of an arduino-based integrated system for sensing of hydrogen peroxide. Sensors and Actuators Reports 131.
Jalal NR, Madrakian T, Ahmadi M, Afkhami A, Khalili S, Bahrami M, Roshanaei M (2024) Wireless wearable potentiometric sensor for simultaneous determination of pH, sodium and potassium in human sweat. Sci Rep 14:11526. (PMID: 10.1038/s41598-024-62236-33877313611109153)
Bill D, Jasper M, Weltin A, Urban GA, Rupitsch SJ, Kieninger J (2023) Electrochemical methods in the cloud: Freistat, an IoT-enabled embedded potentiostat. Anal Chem 95:13003–13009. (PMID: 10.1021/acs.analchem.3c021143758224611321338)
Gao W, Emaminejad S, Nyein HYY, Challa S, Chen K, Peck A et al (2016) Fully integrated wearable sensor arrays for multiplexed in situ perspiration analysis. Nature 529:509–514. (PMID: 10.1038/nature16521268190444996079)
Lakshminarayana S, Ranganatha M, Park H, Jung SY (2024) Trimodal watch-type wearable health monitoring device. Appl Sci 14:9267. (PMID: 10.3390/app14209267)
Lakshminarayana S, Ranganatha M, Sun YZ, Park H (2025) Smartphone enabled wearable diabetes monitoring system. IEEE Access 13:52324–52333. (PMID: 10.1109/ACCESS.2025.3552731)
Tubbs A, Ahmed JU, Christopher J, Alvarez JC (2024) Savitzky-golay processing and bidimensional plotting of current–time signals from stochastic blocking electrochemistry to analyze mixtures of rod-shaped bacteria. Anal Methods 16:6570–6576. (PMID: 10.1039/D4AY00899E39234687)
Manoharan V, Rodrigues R, Sadati S, Swann MJ, Freeman N, Du B et al (2023) Platform-agnostic electrochemical sensing app and companion potentiostat. Analyst 148:4857–4868. (PMID: 10.1039/D2AN01350A3762436610518900)
Bandodkar AJ, Molinnus D, Mirza O, Guinovart T, Windmiller JR, Valdés-Ramírez G et al (2014) Epidermal tattoo potentiometric sodium sensors with wireless signal transduction for continuous non-invasive sweat monitoring. Biosens Bioelectron 54:603–609. (PMID: 10.1016/j.bios.2013.11.03924333582)
Alves LM, Cotta RA, Ciarelli PM, Salles EO, Côco KF, Samatelo JL (2019) Identification of corrosive substances and types of corrosion through electrochemical noise using signal processing and machine learning. J Control Autom Electr Syst 30:16–26. (PMID: 10.1007/s40313-018-00423-0)
Shahub S, Upasham S, Ganguly A, Prasad S (2022) Machine learning guided electrochemical sensor for passive sweat cortisol detection. Sens Bio-Sens Res 38:100527. (PMID: 10.1016/j.sbsr.2022.100527)
Li C, Liu Y, Liu G, Tan Q, Dou X, Xie Y, Zhang X (2025) Development of a low-cost flexible potentiometric detector and its integrated system for electrochemical sensing of electrolytes in human sweat. Sens Actuators Rep. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.snr.2025.100286. (PMID: 10.1016/j.snr.2025.100286)
Liu G, Dou X, Zhang P, Yin S, Tan Q, Jin X, Zhang X (2025) Development of a wearable microfluidic amperometric sensor based on spatial three-electrode system for sweat glucose analysis. Talanta 293:128101. (PMID: 10.1016/j.talanta.2025.12810140215721)
Liu G, Gong Z, Dou X, Li C, Tan Q, Liu Y et al (2025) An integrated electrochemical sensor with flexible microfluidic structures for human sweat analysis. Biochip J 19:50–61. (PMID: 10.1007/s13206-024-00181-z)
Vinoth R, Nakagawa T, Mathiyarasu J, Mohan AV (2021) Fully printed wearable microfluidic devices for high-throughput sweat sampling and multiplexed electrochemical analysis. ACS Sens 6:1174–1186. (PMID: 10.1021/acssensors.0c0244633517662)
Nyein HYY, Gao W, Shahpar Z, Emaminejad S, Challa S, Chen K et al (2016) A wearable electrochemical platform for noninvasive simultaneous monitoring of Ca<sup>2+</sup> and pH. ACS Nano 10:7216–7224. (PMID: 10.1021/acsnano.6b0400527380446)
Zhai Q, Yap LW, Wang R, Gong S, Guo Z, Liu Y et al (2020) Vertically aligned gold nanowires as stretchable and wearable epidermal ion-selective electrode for noninvasive multiplexed sweat analysis. Anal Chem 92:4647–4655. (PMID: 10.1021/acs.analchem.0c0027432069026)
Mwaurah MM, Vinoth R, Nakagawa T, Mathiyarasu J, Mohan AV (2024) A neckband-integrated soft microfluidic biosensor for sweat glucose monitoring. ACS Appl Nano Mater 7:17017–17028. (PMID: 10.1021/acsanm.4c03164)
Saha T, Del Caño R, Mahato K, De la Paz E, Chen C, Ding S et al (2023) Wearable electrochemical glucose sensors in diabetes management: a comprehensive review. Chem Rev 123:7854–7889. (PMID: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.3c0007837253224)
Teymourian H, Barfidokht A, Wang J (2020) Electrochemical glucose sensors in diabetes management: an updated review (2010–2020). Chem Soc Rev 49:7671–7709. (PMID: 10.1039/D0CS00304B33020790)
Min J, Tu J, Xu C, Lukas H, Shin S, Yang Y et al (2023) Skin-interfaced wearable sweat sensors for precision medicine. Chem Rev 123:5049–5138. (PMID: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.2c008233697150410406569)
Apoorva S, Nguyen NT, Sreejith KR (2024) Recent developments and future perspectives of microfluidics and smart technologies in wearable devices. Lab Chip 24:1833–1866. (PMID: 10.1039/D4LC00089G38476112)
Liu C, Xu T, Wang D, Zhang X (2020) The role of sampling in wearable sweat sensors. Talanta. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.talanta.2020.120801. (PMID: 10.1016/j.talanta.2020.120801335927857833523)
Hu M, Wang Z, Zhang L, Lin S, Liao J (2025) A microfluidic patch for wireless wearable electrochemical detection of sweat metabolites. Sens Actuators, B Chem. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.snb.2024.136604. (PMID: 10.1016/j.snb.2024.136604)
Nyein HYY, Tai LC, Ngo QP, Chao M, Zhang GB, Gao W et al (2018) A wearable microfluidic sensing patch for dynamic sweat secretion analysis. ACS Sens 3:944–952. (PMID: 10.1021/acssensors.7b0096129741360)
Chaiyo S, Kunpatee K, Kalcher K, Yakoh A, Pungjunun K (2024) 3D paper-based device integrated with a battery-less NFC potentiostat for nonenzymatic detection of cholesterol. ACS Meas Sci Au 4:432–441. (PMID: 10.1021/acsmeasuresciau.4c000123918435811342457)
Beck JJ, Alenicheva V, Rahn KL, Russo MJ, Baldo TA, Henry CS (2023) Evaluating the performance of an inexpensive, commercially available, NFC-powered and smartphone controlled potentiostat for electrochemical sensing. Electroanalysis. https://doi.org/10.1002/elan.202200552. (PMID: 10.1002/elan.202200552)
Kukkar D, Zhang D, Jeon BH, Kim KH (2022) Recent advances in wearable biosensors for non-invasive monitoring of specific metabolites and electrolytes associated with chronic kidney disease: performance evaluation and future challenges. TrAC Trends Anal Chem. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trac.2022.116570. (PMID: 10.1016/j.trac.2022.116570)
Mohan AV, Rajendran V, Mishra RK, Jayaraman M (2020) Recent advances and perspectives in sweat based wearable electrochemical sensors. TrAC Trends in Analytical Chemistry 131.
Gao F, Liu C, Zhang L, Liu T, Wang Z, Song Z et al (2023) Wearable and flexible electrochemical sensors for sweat analysis: a review. Microsyst Nanoeng 9:1. (PMID: 10.1038/s41378-022-00443-6365975119805458)
Lee I, Probst D, Klonoff D, Sode K (2021) Continuous glucose monitoring systems—current status and future perspectives of the flagship technologies in biosensor research. Biosens Bioelectron. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bios.2021.113054. (PMID: 10.1016/j.bios.2021.113054349958378662841)
Kalita N, Gogoi S, Minteer SD, Goswami P (2023) Advances in bioelectrode design for developing electrochemical biosensors. ACS Meas Sci Au 3:404–433. (PMID: 10.1021/acsmeasuresciau.3c000343814502710740130)
Khosropour H, Keramat M, Tasca F, Laiwattanapaisal W (2024) A comprehensive review of the application of Zr-based metal–organic frameworks for electrochemical sensors and biosensors. Microchim Acta 191:449. (PMID: 10.1007/s00604-024-06515-w)
Parrilla M, Cuartero M, Crespo GA (2019) Wearable potentiometric ion sensors. TrAC Trends Anal Chem 110:303–320. (PMID: 10.1016/j.trac.2018.11.024)
Pérez D, Orozco J (2022) Wearable electrochemical biosensors to measure biomarkers with complex blood-to-sweat partition such as proteins and hormones. Microchim Acta 189:127. (PMID: 10.1007/s00604-022-05228-2)
Gao W, Luo X, Liu Y, Zhao Y, Cui Y (2021) Development of an arduino-based integrated system for sensing of hydrogen peroxide. Sensors and Actuators Reports 131.
Jalal NR, Madrakian T, Ahmadi M, Afkhami A, Khalili S, Bahrami M, Roshanaei M (2024) Wireless wearable potentiometric sensor for simultaneous determination of pH, sodium and potassium in human sweat. Sci Rep 14:11526. (PMID: 10.1038/s41598-024-62236-33877313611109153)
Bill D, Jasper M, Weltin A, Urban GA, Rupitsch SJ, Kieninger J (2023) Electrochemical methods in the cloud: Freistat, an IoT-enabled embedded potentiostat. Anal Chem 95:13003–13009. (PMID: 10.1021/acs.analchem.3c021143758224611321338)
Gao W, Emaminejad S, Nyein HYY, Challa S, Chen K, Peck A et al (2016) Fully integrated wearable sensor arrays for multiplexed in situ perspiration analysis. Nature 529:509–514. (PMID: 10.1038/nature16521268190444996079)
Lakshminarayana S, Ranganatha M, Park H, Jung SY (2024) Trimodal watch-type wearable health monitoring device. Appl Sci 14:9267. (PMID: 10.3390/app14209267)
Lakshminarayana S, Ranganatha M, Sun YZ, Park H (2025) Smartphone enabled wearable diabetes monitoring system. IEEE Access 13:52324–52333. (PMID: 10.1109/ACCESS.2025.3552731)
Tubbs A, Ahmed JU, Christopher J, Alvarez JC (2024) Savitzky-golay processing and bidimensional plotting of current–time signals from stochastic blocking electrochemistry to analyze mixtures of rod-shaped bacteria. Anal Methods 16:6570–6576. (PMID: 10.1039/D4AY00899E39234687)
Manoharan V, Rodrigues R, Sadati S, Swann MJ, Freeman N, Du B et al (2023) Platform-agnostic electrochemical sensing app and companion potentiostat. Analyst 148:4857–4868. (PMID: 10.1039/D2AN01350A3762436610518900)
Bandodkar AJ, Molinnus D, Mirza O, Guinovart T, Windmiller JR, Valdés-Ramírez G et al (2014) Epidermal tattoo potentiometric sodium sensors with wireless signal transduction for continuous non-invasive sweat monitoring. Biosens Bioelectron 54:603–609. (PMID: 10.1016/j.bios.2013.11.03924333582)
Alves LM, Cotta RA, Ciarelli PM, Salles EO, Côco KF, Samatelo JL (2019) Identification of corrosive substances and types of corrosion through electrochemical noise using signal processing and machine learning. J Control Autom Electr Syst 30:16–26. (PMID: 10.1007/s40313-018-00423-0)
Shahub S, Upasham S, Ganguly A, Prasad S (2022) Machine learning guided electrochemical sensor for passive sweat cortisol detection. Sens Bio-Sens Res 38:100527. (PMID: 10.1016/j.sbsr.2022.100527)
Li C, Liu Y, Liu G, Tan Q, Dou X, Xie Y, Zhang X (2025) Development of a low-cost flexible potentiometric detector and its integrated system for electrochemical sensing of electrolytes in human sweat. Sens Actuators Rep. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.snr.2025.100286. (PMID: 10.1016/j.snr.2025.100286)
Liu G, Dou X, Zhang P, Yin S, Tan Q, Jin X, Zhang X (2025) Development of a wearable microfluidic amperometric sensor based on spatial three-electrode system for sweat glucose analysis. Talanta 293:128101. (PMID: 10.1016/j.talanta.2025.12810140215721)
Liu G, Gong Z, Dou X, Li C, Tan Q, Liu Y et al (2025) An integrated electrochemical sensor with flexible microfluidic structures for human sweat analysis. Biochip J 19:50–61. (PMID: 10.1007/s13206-024-00181-z)
Vinoth R, Nakagawa T, Mathiyarasu J, Mohan AV (2021) Fully printed wearable microfluidic devices for high-throughput sweat sampling and multiplexed electrochemical analysis. ACS Sens 6:1174–1186. (PMID: 10.1021/acssensors.0c0244633517662)
Nyein HYY, Gao W, Shahpar Z, Emaminejad S, Challa S, Chen K et al (2016) A wearable electrochemical platform for noninvasive simultaneous monitoring of Ca<sup>2+</sup> and pH. ACS Nano 10:7216–7224. (PMID: 10.1021/acsnano.6b0400527380446)
Zhai Q, Yap LW, Wang R, Gong S, Guo Z, Liu Y et al (2020) Vertically aligned gold nanowires as stretchable and wearable epidermal ion-selective electrode for noninvasive multiplexed sweat analysis. Anal Chem 92:4647–4655. (PMID: 10.1021/acs.analchem.0c0027432069026)
Mwaurah MM, Vinoth R, Nakagawa T, Mathiyarasu J, Mohan AV (2024) A neckband-integrated soft microfluidic biosensor for sweat glucose monitoring. ACS Appl Nano Mater 7:17017–17028. (PMID: 10.1021/acsanm.4c03164)
Saha T, Del Caño R, Mahato K, De la Paz E, Chen C, Ding S et al (2023) Wearable electrochemical glucose sensors in diabetes management: a comprehensive review. Chem Rev 123:7854–7889. (PMID: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.3c0007837253224)
Teymourian H, Barfidokht A, Wang J (2020) Electrochemical glucose sensors in diabetes management: an updated review (2010–2020). Chem Soc Rev 49:7671–7709. (PMID: 10.1039/D0CS00304B33020790)
Grant Information:
L223016 Natural Science Foundation of Beijing Municipality; 52205439 National Natural Science Foundation of China; 52375402 National Natural Science Foundation of China
Contributed Indexing:
Keywords: Ca determination; Glucose determination; Microfluidic electrochemical sensor; Wavelet analysis; Wearable electrochemical detection
Substance Nomenclature:
SY7Q814VUP (Calcium)
IY9XDZ35W2 (Glucose)
IY9XDZ35W2 (Glucose)
Entry Date(s):
Date Created: 20250819 Date Completed: 20250820 Latest Revision: 20250909
Update Code:
20260130
DOI:
10.1007/s00604-025-07466-6
PMID:
40830673
Database:
MEDLINE
*Further Information*
*This study presents a wearable multi-parameter electrochemical detection system (WMEDS) designed for the simultaneous monitoring of sweat biomarkers. The system integrates a microcontroller, a dual-mode signal acquisition circuit, and a low-power Bluetooth module. To address the non-stationary electrochemical signals, a preprocessing approach combining Savitzky-Golay filtering with Z-score-difference detection is employed. The core algorithm incorporates wavelet hierarchical threshold denoising, which improves the average signal-to-noise ratio by 12 dB. This signal processing method effectively suppresses noise while preserving key signal features (peak retention rate of 97.3%), resulting in a smoothness index exceeding 0.99, and the root mean square remains below ± 0.5%. The efficacy of the WMEDS is demonstrated in Ca<sup>2+</sup> and glucose detection, indicating comparable results with those obtained from commercial electrochemical workstations. Furthermore, the WMEDS achieves highly accurate detection of Ca<sup>2+</sup> (sensitivity of 30.6 mV/decade) and glucose (sensitivity of 7.7 μA/mM), with quantitative errors less than 5.5% and on-body test fluctuations below 2.2%, thereby fulfilling the performance requirements for wearable sweat monitoring applications.
(© 2025. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer-Verlag GmbH Austria, part of Springer Nature.)*
*Declarations. Ethics approval: Not applicable. Competing interests: The authors declare no competing interests.*