*Result*: Insect protein: the next frontier in bodybuilding nutrition.
Title:
Insect protein: the next frontier in bodybuilding nutrition.
Authors:
Kamalakannan M; Department of Agricultural Entomology, Centre for Plant Protection Studies, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India.; Department of Product Development, ATGC Biotech Private Limited, Hyderabad, 500078, Telangana, India., Gudla K; Department of Agricultural Entomology, Centre for Plant Protection Studies, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India.
Source:
Journal of the science of food and agriculture [J Sci Food Agric] 2026 Jan 30; Vol. 106 (2), pp. 736-759. Date of Electronic Publication: 2025 Jul 15.
Publication Type:
Journal Article; Review
Language:
English
Journal Info:
Publisher: John Wiley & Sons Country of Publication: England NLM ID: 0376334 Publication Model: Print-Electronic Cited Medium: Internet ISSN: 1097-0010 (Electronic) Linking ISSN: 00225142 NLM ISO Abbreviation: J Sci Food Agric Subsets: MEDLINE
Imprint Name(s):
Publication: <2005-> : Chichester, West Sussex : John Wiley & Sons
Original Publication: London, Society of Chemical Industry.
Original Publication: London, Society of Chemical Industry.
MeSH Terms:
References:
Jafarzadeh S, Qazanfarzadeh Z, Majzoobi M, Sheiband S, Oladzadabbasabad N, Esmaeili Y et al., Alternative proteins; A path to sustainable diets and environment. Curr Res Food Sci 9:100882 (2024).
Carbone JW and Pasiakos SM, Dietary protein and muscle mass: translating science to application and health benefit. Nutrients 11:1136 (2019).
Lange KW and Nakamura Y, Potential contribution of edible insects to sustainable consumption and production. Front Sustain 4:1112950 (2023).
Lisboa HM, Nascimento A, Arruda A, Sarinho A, Lima J, Batista L et al., Unlocking the potential of insect‐based proteins: sustainable solutions for global food security and nutrition. Foods 13:1846 (2024).
Sogari G, Amato M, Palmieri R, Saadoun JH, Formici G, Verneau F et al., The future is crawling: evaluating the potential of insects for food and feed security. Curr Res Food Sci 6:100504 (2023).
Payne C, Scarborough P, Rayner M and Nonaka K, Are edible insects more or less ‘healthy'than commonly consumed meats? A comparison using two nutrient profiling models developed to combat over‐and undernutrition. Eur J Clin Nutr 70:285–291 (2016).
Li M, Mao C, Li X, Jiang L, Zhang W, Li M et al., Edible insects: a new sustainable nutritional resource worth promoting. Foods 12:4073 (2023).
Ojha S, Bekhit AE‐D, Grune T and Schlüter OK, bioavailability of nutrients from edible insects. Curr Opin Food Sci 41:240–248 (2021).
Payne P, Ryan A and Finlay‐Smits S, Insects as mini‐livestock: New Zealand's public attitudes toward consuming insects. Kōtuitui New Zeal J Soc Sci Online 18:310–326 (2023).
Kim T‐K, Yong HI, Kim Y‐B, Kim H‐W and Choi Y‐S, Edible insects as a protein source: a review of public perception, processing technology, and research trends. Food Sci Anim Resour 39:521–540 (2019).
Rivas‐Navia DM, Dueñas‐Rivadeneira AA, Dueñas‐Rivadeneira JP, Aransiola SA, Maddela NR and Prasad R, Bioactive compounds of insects for food use: potentialities and risks. J Agric Food Res 14:100807 (2023).
Kurek MA, Onopiuk A, Pogorzelska‐Nowicka E, Szpicer A, Zalewska M and Półtorak A, Novel protein sources for applications in meat‐alternative products—insight and challenges. Foods 11:957 (2022).
Hasnan FFB, Feng Y, Sun T, Parraga K, Schwarz M and Zarei M, Insects as valuable sources of protein and peptides: production, functional properties, and challenges. Foods 12:4243 (2023).
Zielińska E and Pankiewicz U, The potential for the use of edible insects in the production of protein supplements for athletes. Foods 12:3654 (2023).
Wolfe RR, Branched‐chain amino acids and muscle protein synthesis in humans: myth or reality? J Int Soc Sports Nutr 14:30 (2017).
Ren L, Yang F and Gu C, A study of the purchase intention of insect protein food as alternative foods for fitness proteins. Heliyon 9:e20239 (2023).
Ochiai M, Suzuki Y, Suzuki R, Iwata K and Murayama M, Low protein digestibility‐corrected amino acid score and net nitrogen‐to‐protein conversion factor value of edible insects. Food Chem 454:139781 (2024).
López‐Martínez MI, Miguel M and Garcés‐Rimón M, Protein and sport: alternative sources and strategies for bioactive and sustainable sports nutrition. Front Nutr 9:926043 (2022).
Ferrazzano GF, D'Ambrosio F, Caruso S, Gatto R and Caruso S, Bioactive peptides derived from edible insects: effects on human health and possible applications in dentistry. Nutrients 15:4611 (2023).
Psarianos M, Aghababaei F and Schlüter OK, Bioactive compounds in edible insects: aspects of cultivation, processing and nutrition. Food Res Int 203:115802 (2025).
Godde CM, Mason‐D'Croz D, Mayberry DE, Thornton PK and Herrero M, impacts of climate change on the livestock food supply chain; a review of the evidence. Glob Food Sec 28:100488 (2021).
Aidoo OF, Osei‐Owusu J, Asante K, Dofuor AK, Boateng BO, Debrah SK et al., Insects as food and medicine: a sustainable solution for global health and environmental challenges. Front Nutr 10:1113219 (2023).
FAO, ‘Worm’ up to the idea of edible insects (2022). https://www.fao.org/newsroom/story/-Worm-up-to-the-idea-of-edible-insects/en (25 March 2025).
Mannaa M, Mansour A, Park I, Lee D‐W and Seo Y‐S, Insect‐based agri‐food waste valorization: agricultural applications and roles of insect gut microbiota. Environ Sci Ecotechnol 17:100287 (2024).
Van Huis A and Oonincx DG, The environmental sustainability of insects as food and feed. A review. Agron Sustain Dev 37:1–14 (2017).
Olivadese M and Dindo ML, Edible insects: a historical and cultural perspective on entomophagy with a focus on Western societies. Insects 14:690 (2023).
Onwezen MC, Bouwman EP, Reinders MJ and Dagevos H, A systematic review on consumer acceptance of alternative proteins: pulses, algae, insects, plant‐based meat alternatives, and cultured meat. Appetite 159:105058 (2021).
Hermans WJ, Senden JM, Churchward‐Venne TA, Paulussen KJ, Fuchs CJ, Smeets JS et al., Insects are a viable protein source for human consumption: from insect protein digestion to postprandial muscle protein synthesis in vivo in humans: a double‐blind randomized trial. Am J Clin Nutr 114:934–944 (2021).
Baigts‐Allende D, Doost AS, Ramírez‐Rodrigues M, Dewettinck K, Van der Meeren P, de Meulenaer B et al., Insect protein concentrates from Mexican edible insects: structural and functional characterization. LWT 152:112267 (2021).
Huang C, Feng W, Xiong J, Wang T, Wang W, Wang C et al., Impact of drying method on the nutritional value of the edible insect protein from black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens L.) larvae: amino acid composition, nutritional value evaluation, in vitro digestibility, and thermal properties. Eur Food Res Technol 245:11–21 (2019).
Nsevolo Miankeba P, Taofic A, Kiatoko N, Mutiaka K, Francis F and Caparros Megido R, Protein content and amino acid profiles of selected edible insect species from the Democratic Republic of Congo relevant for transboundary trade across Africa. Insects 13:994 (2022).
Tan YL, Tan FA and Chye FY, Nutritional properties of selected edible insects. Biol Life Sci Forum 40:43 (2024).
Janssen RH, Vincken J‐P, van den Broek LAM, Fogliano V and Lakemond CMM, Nitrogen‐to‐protein conversion factors for three edible insects: Tenebrio molitor, Alphitobius diaperinus, and Hermetia illucens. J Agric Food Chem 65:2275–2278 (2017).
Yong HI, Kim TK, Cha JY, Lee JH, Kang MC, Jung S et al., Effects of edible insect extracts on the antioxidant, physiochemical, and microbial properties of Tteokgalbi during refrigerated storage. Food Biosci 52:102377 (2023).
Jakubczyk A, Karaś M, Rybczyńska‐Tkaczyk K, Zielińska E and Zieliński D, Current trends of bioactive peptides‐new sources and therapeutic effect. Foods 9:846 (2020).
Mintah BK, He R, Agyekum AA, Dabbour M, Golly MK and Ma H, Edible insect protein for food applications: extraction, composition, and functional properties. J Food Process Eng 43:e13362 (2020).
Saetae D, Eri silkworm pupae protein: a novel edible insect ingredient for enhancing ice cream quality and consumer acceptance. Future Foods 11:100533 (2025).
Ogidi CO, Oluwayemisi OA, Seun BR and Aladejana OM, Evaluation of nutrient contents and antioxidant activity of wheat cookies fortified with mushroom (Termitomyces robustus) and edible insects. J Culin Sci Technol 23:34–52 (2025).
Hoon Lee J, Kim Y‐J, Kim T‐K, Song K‐M and Choi Y‐S, Effect of ethanol treatment on the structural, techno‐functional, and antioxidant properties of edible insect protein obtained from Tenebrio molitor larvae. Food Chem 437:137852 (2024).
Oliveira LA, Pereira SMS, Dias KA, Paes SS, Grancieri M, Jimenez LGS et al., nutritional content, amino acid profile, and protein properties of edible insects (Tenebrio molitor and Gryllus assimilis) powders at different stages of development. J Food Compos Anal 125:105804 (2024).
Lampová B, Kopecká A, Šmíd P, Kulma M, Kurečka M, Ogrinc N et al., Evaluating protein quality in edible insects: a comparative analysis of house cricket, yellow mealworm, and migratory locust using DIAAS methodologies. LWT 213:117062 (2024).
Petrusán J‐I, Rawel H and Huschek G, Protein‐rich vegetal sources and trends in human nutrition: a review. Curr Top Pept Protein Res 17:1–19 (2016).
Zeng Y, Chen E, Zhang X, Li D, Wang Q and Sun Y, Nutritional value and physicochemical characteristics of alternative protein for meat and dairy‐a review. Foods 11:3326 (2022).
Malla N, Nørgaard JV and Roos N, Protein quality of edible insects in the view of current assessment methods. Anim Front 13:50–63 (2023).
Tang C, Yang D, Liao H, Sun H, Liu C, Wei L et al., Edible insects as a food source: a review. Food Prod Process Nutr 1:8 (2019).
Orkusz A, Edible insects versus meat—nutritional comparison: knowledge of their composition is the key to good health. Nutrients 13:1207 (2021).
Kouřimská L and Adámková A, Nutritional and sensory quality of edible insects. NFS Journal 4:22–26 (2016).
Xiaoming C, Ying F, Hong Z and Zhiyong C, Review of the nutritive value of edible insects. Forest insects as food: humans bite back. Proceedings of a workshop on Asia‐Pacific resources and their potential for development, Chiang Mai, Thailand, 19–21 February, 2008: 85–92 (2010).
Hertzler SR, Lieblein‐Boff JC, Weiler M and Allgeier C, Plant proteins: assessing their nutritional quality and effects on health and physical function. Nutrients 12:3704 (2020).
Vangsoe MT, Thogersen R, Bertram HC, Heckmann L‐HL and Hansen M, ingestion of insect protein isolate enhances blood amino acid concentrations similar to soy protein in a human trial. Nutrients 10:1357 (2018).
Schmidt A, Call L‐M, Macheiner L and Mayer HK, Determination of vitamin B12 in four edible insect species by immunoaffinity and ultra‐high performance liquid chromatography. Food Chem 281:124–129 (2019).
Niklewicz A, Smith AD, Smith A, Holzer A, Klein A, McCaddon A et al., The importance of vitamin B12 for individuals choosing plant‐based diets. Eur J Nutr 62:1551–1559 (2023).
Weru J, Chege P and Kinyuru J, Nutritional potential of edible insects: a systematic review of published data. Int J Trop Insect Sci 41:2015–2037 (2021).
Oibiokpa FI, Akanya H, Jigam A and Saidu A, Nutrient and antinutrient compositions of some edible insect species in northern Nigeria. Fountain Journal of Natural and Applied Sciences 6:9–24 (2017).
Ishara J, Matendo R, Siddiqui SA, Niassy S, Katcho K and Kinyuru J, The contribution of commonly consumed edible insects to nutrition security in the eastern D.R. Congo. Sci Rep 14:16186 (2024).
Latunde‐Dada GO, Yang W and Vera Aviles M, In vitro iron availability from insects and sirloin beef. J Agric Food Chem 64:8420–8424 (2016).
Gorman MJ, Iron homeostasis in insects. Annu Rev Entomol 68:51–67 (2023).
Lin P‐H, Sermersheim M, Li H, Lee PH, Steinberg SM and Ma J, Zinc in wound healing modulation. Nutrients 10:16 (2017).
Finke MD, Nutrient content of insects, in Encyclopedia of Entomology, ed. by Capinera JL. Springer Netherlands, Dordrecht, pp. 2623–2646 (2008).
Adámková A, Kouřimská L, Borkovcová M, Mlček J and Bednářová M, Calcium in edible insects and its use in human nutrition. Potravin Slovak J Food Sci 8:233–238 (2014).
Hassan SA, Altemimi AB, Hashmi AA, Shahzadi S, Mujahid W, Ali A et al., Edible crickets, as a possible way to curb protein‐energy malnutrition: nutritional status, food applications, and safety concerns. Food Chem X 23:101533 (2024).
Anaduaka EG, Uchendu NO, Osuji DO, Ene LN and Amoke OP, Nutritional compositions of two edible insects: Oryctes rhinocero larva and Zonocerus variegatus. Heliyon 7:e06531 (2021).
Shah AA and Wanapat M, Gryllus testaceus walker (crickets) farming management, chemical composition, nutritive profile, and their effect on animal digestibility. Entomol Res 51:639–649 (2021).
Kępińska‐Pacelik J, Biel W, Podsiadło C, Tokarczyk G, Biernacka P and Bienkiewicz G, Nutritional value of banded cricket and mealworm larvae. Foods 12:4174 (2023).
Lu M, Zhu C, Smetana S, Zhao M, Zhang H, Zhang F et al., Minerals in edible insects: a review of content and potential for sustainable sourcing. Food Sci Hum Wellness 13:65–74 (2024).
Chakravorty J, Ghosh S, Megu K, Jung C and Meyer‐Rochow VB, Nutritional and anti‐nutritional composition of Oecophylla smaragdina (hymenoptera: Formicidae) and Odontotermes sp. (Isoptera: Termitidae): two preferred edible insects of Arunachal Pradesh, India. J Asia Pac Entomol 19:711–720 (2016).
Zhou Y, Wang D, Zhou S, Duan H, Guo J and Yan W, Nutritional composition, health benefits, and application value of edible insects: a review. Foods 11:3961 (2022).
Kulma M, Kouřimská L, Homolková D, Božik M, Plachý V and Vrabec V, Effect of developmental stage on the nutritional value of edible insects. A case study with Blaberus craniifer and Zophobas morio. J Food Compos Anal 92:103570 (2020).
Kinyuru JN, Mogendi JB, Riwa CA and Ndung'u NW, Edible insects—a novel source of essential nutrients for human diet: learning from traditional knowledge. Anim Front 5:14–19 (2015).
Pan J, Xu H, Cheng Y, Mintah BK, Dabbour M, Yang F et al., Recent insight on edible insect protein: extraction, functional properties, Allergenicity, bioactivity, and applications. Foods 11:29 (2022).
Yi L, Lakemond CM, Sagis LM, Eisner‐Schadler V, Van Huis A and van Boekel MA, Extraction and characterisation of protein fractions from five insect species. Food Chem 141:3341–3348 (2013).
Cajas‐Lopez K and Ordoñez‐Araque R, Analysis of chontacuro (Rhynchophorus palmarum L.) protein and fat content and incorporation into traditional Ecuadorian dishes. J Insects Food Feed 8:1521–1528 (2022).
dos Santos Aguilar JG, An overview of lipids from insects. Biocatal Agric Biotechnol 33:101967 (2021).
Sun‐Waterhouse D, Waterhouse GI, You L, Zhang J, Liu Y, Ma L et al., Transforming insect biomass into consumer wellness foods: a review. Food Res Int 89:129–151 (2016).
Nowak V, Persijn D, Rittenschober D and Charrondiere UR, Review of food composition data for edible insects. Food Chem 193:39–46 (2016).
Huang G, Zhang Y, Liu F, Xiao J and Huang D, Fatty acid profile of insect oil and regulation mechanism as nutritious and functional oil: An Integrative Review. J Food Compos Anal 137:106809 (2024).
Raksakantong P, Meeso N, Kubola J and Siriamornpun S, Fatty acids and proximate composition of eight Thai edible terricolous insects. Food Res Int 43:350–355 (2010).
Brogan EN, Park Y‐L, Shen C, Matak KE and Jaczynski J, Characterization of lipids in insect powders. LWT 184:115040 (2023).
Stull VJ and Weir TL, Chitin and omega‐3 fatty acids in edible insects have underexplored benefits for the gut microbiome and human health. Nature Food 4:283–287 (2023).
Kolobe SD, Manyelo TG, Malematja E, Sebola NA and Mabelebele M, Fats and major fatty acids present in edible insects utilised as food and livestock feed. Vet Anim Sci 22:100312 (2023).
Müller A, Insects as food in Laos and Thailand: a case of “westernisation”? Asian J Soc Sci 47:204–223 (2019).
Ushakova N, Brodskii E, Kovalenko A, Bastrakov A, Kozlova A and Pavlov D, Characteristics of lipid fractions of larvae of the black soldier fly Hermetia illucens, in, ed. by Biophys DB. Springer, pp. 209–212 (2016).
Kunanusornchai W, Witoonpanich B, Tawonsawatruk T, Pichyangkura R, Chatsudthipong V and Muanprasat C, Chitosan oligosaccharide suppresses synovial inflammation via AMPK activation: an in vitro and in vivo study. Pharmacol Res 113:458–467 (2016).
Rajesh KM, Govindula A, Selvaraj S, Mudgal J and Raval R, Enzymatic Chito‐oligosaccharides from Alcaligenes faecalis: a potential therapy for Neuroinflammation and associated Behavioural changes. Carbohydr Polym Technol Appl 10:100719 (2025).
Hu H, Xia H, Zou X, Li X, Zhang Z, Yao X et al., N‐acetyl‐chitooligosaccharide attenuates inflammatory responses by suppression of NF‐κB signaling, MAPK and NLRP3 inflammasome in macrophages. J Funct Foods 78:104364 (2021).
Rehman KU, Hollah C, Wiesotzki K, Heinz V, Aganovic K, Rehman RU et al., Insect‐derived chitin and chitosan: a still unexploited resource for the edible insect sector. Sustainability 15:4864 (2023).
Soetemans L, Uyttebroek M and Bastiaens L, Characteristics of chitin extracted from black soldier fly in different life stages. Int J Biol Macromol 165:3206–3214 (2020).
Psarianos M, Ojha S, Schneider R and Schlüter OK, Chitin isolation and chitosan production from house crickets (Acheta domesticus) by environmentally friendly methods. Molecules 27:5005 (2022).
Kipkoech C, Beyond proteins—edible insects as a source of dietary fiber. Polysaccharides 4:116–128 (2023).
Imathiu S, Benefits and food safety concerns associated with consumption of edible insects. NFS journal 18:1–11 (2020).
Lopez‐Santamarina A, Mondragon AC, lamas a, Miranda JM, Franco CM and Cepeda a, animal‐origin prebiotics based on chitin: an alternative for the future? A critical review. Foods 9:782 (2020).
Ma J, Faqir Y, Tan C and Khaliq G, Terrestrial insects as a promising source of chitosan and recent developments in its application for various industries. Food Chem 373:131407 (2022).
Kipkoech C, Kinyuru JN, Imathiu S, Meyer‐Rochow VB and Roos N, In vitro study of cricket chitosan's potential as a prebiotic and a promoter of probiotic microorganisms to control pathogenic bacteria in the human gut. Foods 10:2310 (2021).
Unuofin JO, Odeniyi OA, Majengbasan OS, Igwaran A, Moloantoa KM, Khetsha ZP et al., Chitinases: expanding the boundaries of knowledge beyond routinized chitin degradation. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int 31:38045–38060 (2024).
Zhang M, Haga A, Sekiguchi H and Hirano S, Structure of insect chitin isolated from beetle larva cuticle and silkworm (Bombyx mori) pupa exuvia. Int J Biol Macromol 27:99–105 (2000).
Panzella L, Moccia F, Nasti R, Marzorati S, Verotta L and Napolitano A, Bioactive phenolic compounds from agri‐food wastes: an update on green and sustainable extraction methodologies. Front Nutr 7:60 (2020).
Lee JH, Kim T‐K, Jeong CH, Yong HI, Cha JY, Kim B‐K et al., Biological activity and processing technologies of edible insects: a review. Food Sci Biotechnol 30:1003–1023 (2021).
Ssepuuya G, Kagulire J, Katongole J, Kabbo D, Claes J and Nakimbugwe D, Suitable extraction conditions for determination of total anti‐oxidant capacity and phenolic compounds in Ruspolia differens Serville. J Insects Food Feed 7:205–214 (2021).
Patyra E and Kwiatek K, Insect meals and insect antimicrobial peptides as an alternative for antibiotics and growth promoters in livestock production. Pathogens 12:854 (2023).
Eleftherianos I, Zhang W, Heryanto C, Mohamed A, Contreras G, Tettamanti G et al., Diversity of insect antimicrobial peptides and proteins‐a functional perspective: a review. Int J Biol Macromol 191:277–287 (2021).
Lin X, Wang F, Lu Y, Wang J, Chen J, Yu Y et al., A review on edible insects in China: nutritional supply, environmental benefits, and potential applications. Curr Res Food Sci 7:100596 (2023).
M R, D M, Gowda VG and Gowda K, Entomophagy: a sustainable food alternative to save planet. IP J Nutr Metab Health Sci 7:7–13 (2024).
Ordoñez‐Araque R, Quishpillo‐Miranda N and Ramos‐Guerrero L, Edible insects for humans and animals: nutritional composition and an option for mitigating environmental damage. Insects 13:944 (2022).
Jafir M, Abbas M, Irfan M and Zia‐Ur‐Rehman M, Greenhouse gases emission from edible insect species, in Advances and Technology Development in Greenhouse Gases: Emission, Capture and Conversion. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. 205–225 (2024).
Schrögel P and Wätjen W, Insects for food and feed‐safety aspects related to mycotoxins and metals. Foods 8:288 (2019).
Malematja E, Manyelo TG, Sebola NA, Kolobe SD and Mabelebele M, The accumulation of heavy metals in feeder insects and their impact on animal production. Sci Total Environ 885:163716 (2023).
Gori A, Armani A, Pedonese F, Benini O, Mancini S and Nuvoloni R, Heavy metals (Pb, Cd, Ni) in insect‐based products for human consumption sold by e‐commerce in the EU market: occurrence and potential health risk associated with dietary exposure. Food Control 167:110781 (2025).
Wong L, Huang CH and Lee BW, Shellfish and house dust mite allergies: is the link tropomyosin? Allergy Asthma Immunol Res 8:101–106 (2016).
Almeida CC, Alvares TS, Costa MP and Conte‐Junior CA, Protein and amino acid profiles of different whey protein supplements. J Diet Suppl 13:313–323 (2016).
Bird SP, Nienhuis M, Biagioli B, De Pauw K and Meeusen R, Supplementation strategies for strength and power athletes: carbohydrate, protein, and amino acid ingestion. Nutrients 16:1886 (2024).
Lampová B, Doskočil I, Šmíd P and Kouřimská L, Comparison of cricket protein powder and whey protein digestibility. Molecules 29:3598 (2024).
Réhault‐Godbert S, Guyot N and Nys Y, The Golden egg: nutritional value, bioactivities, and emerging benefits for human health. Nutrients 11:684 (2019).
Liceaga AM, Edible insects, a valuable protein source from ancient to modern times. Adv Food Nutr Res 101:129–152 (2022).
Nowakowski AC, Miller AC, Miller ME, Xiao H and Wu X, Potential health benefits of edible insects. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 62:3499–3508 (2022).
Pelletier N, Ibarburu M and Xin H, Comparison of the environmental footprint of the egg industry in the United States in 1960 and 20101. Poult Sci 93:241–255 (2014).
Evenepoel P, Geypens B, Luypaerts A, Hiele M, Ghoos Y and Rutgeerts P, Digestibility of cooked and raw egg protein in humans as assessed by stable isotope Techniques123. J Nutr 128:1716–1722 (1998).
Collins CM, Vaskou P and Kountouris Y, Insect food products in the Western world: assessing the potential of a new ‘green’ market. Ann Entomol Soc Am 112:518–528 (2019).
Liceaga AM, Processing insects for use in the food and feed industry. Curr Opin Insect Sci 48:32–36 (2021).
Rojas‐Downing MM, Nejadhashemi AP, Harrigan T and Woznicki SA, Climate change and livestock: impacts, adaptation, and mitigation. Clim Risk Manag 16:145–163 (2017).
Grossi G, Goglio P, Vitali A and Williams AG, Livestock and climate change: impact of livestock on climate and mitigation strategies. Anim Front 9:69–76 (2019).
Kutay H, Water consumption and control in farm animals. BIO Web Conf 85:1062 (2024).
Bacenetti J, Bava L, Schievano A and Zucali M, Whey protein concentrate (WPC) production: environmental impact assessment. J Food Eng 224:139–147 (2018).
Espitia Buitrago PA, Hernández LM, Burkart S, Palmer N and Cardoso Arango JA, Forage‐fed insects as food and feed source: opportunities and constraints of edible insects in the tropics. Front Sustain Food Syst 5:724628 (2021).
Madau FA, Arru B, Furesi R and Pulina P, Insect farming for feed and food production from a circular business model perspective. Sustainability 12:5418 (2020).
Atherton P and Smith K, Muscle protein synthesis in response to nutrition and exercise. J Physiol 590:1049–1057 (2012).
Witard OC, Bannock L and Tipton KD, Making sense of muscle protein synthesis: a focus on muscle growth during resistance training. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab 32:49–61 (2021).
Acosta‐Estrada BA, Reyes A, Rosell CM, Rodrigo D and Ibarra‐Herrera CC, Benefits and challenges in the incorporation of insects in food products. Front Nutr 8:687712 (2021).
Bukkens SG, The nutritional value of edible insects. Ecol Food Nutr 36:287–319 (1997).
Churchward‐Venne TA, Pinckaers PJ, van Loon JJ and van Loon LJ, Consideration of insects as a source of dietary protein for human consumption. Nutr Rev 75:1035–1045 (2017).
Drummond MJ and Rasmussen BB, Leucine‐enriched nutrients and the regulation of mammalian target of rapamycin signalling and human skeletal muscle protein synthesis. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care 11:222–226 (2008).
De Bandt J‐P, Leucine and mammalian target of rapamycin–dependent activation of muscle protein synthesis in aging. J Nutr 146:2616S–2624S (2016).
Tuhumury H, Edible insects: alternative protein for sustainable food and nutritional security, in IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science. IOP Publishing, Ambon, Indonesia, p. 12029 (2021).
Weinert DJ, Nutrition and muscle protein synthesis: a descriptive review. J Can Chiropr Assoc 53:186 (2009).
Ely IA, Phillips BE, Smith K, Wilkinson DJ, Piasecki M, Breen L et al., A focus on leucine in the nutritional regulation of human skeletal muscle metabolism in ageing, exercise and unloading states. Clin Nutr 42:1849–1865 (2023).
Magara HJO, Niassy S, Ayieko MA, Mukundamago M, Egonyu JP, Tanga CM et al., Edible crickets (Orthoptera) around the world: distribution, nutritional value, and other benefits‐a review. Front Nutr 7:537915 (2020).
Gorissen SHM, Crombag JJR, Senden JMG, Waterval WAH, Bierau J, Verdijk LB et al., Protein content and amino acid composition of commercially available plant‐based protein isolates. Amino Acids 50:1685–1695 (2018).
Aragon AA and Schoenfeld BJ, Nutrient timing revisited: is there a post‐exercise anabolic window? J Int Soc Sports Nutr 10:1–11 (2013).
Stokes T, Hector AJ, Morton RW, McGlory C and Phillips SM, Recent perspectives regarding the role of dietary protein for the promotion of muscle hypertrophy with resistance exercise training. Nutrients 10:180 (2018).
Schoenfeld BJ and Aragon AA, Is there a postworkout anabolic window of opportunity for nutrient consumption? Clearing up controversies. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther 48:911–914 (2018).
Schoenfeld BJ, Aragon AA and Krieger JW, The effect of protein timing on muscle strength and hypertrophy: a meta‐analysis. J Int Soc Sports Nutr 10:53 (2013).
Kerksick CM, Arent S, Schoenfeld BJ, Stout JR, Campbell B, Wilborn CD et al., International Society of Sports Nutrition position stand: nutrient timing. J Int Soc Sports Nutr 14:1–21 (2017).
Caballero‐García A and Córdova‐Martínez A, Muscle recovery and nutrition. Nutrients 14:2416 (2022).
Gravel A and Doyen A, The use of edible insect proteins in food: challenges and issues related to their functional properties. Innovative Food Science & Emerging Technologies 59:102272 (2020).
Rivero‐Pino F, Gonzalez‐de la Rosa T and Montserrat‐de la Paz S, Edible insects as a source of biopeptides and their role in immunonutrition. Food Funct 15:2789–2798 (2024).
Koopmans L, Spoelder M, Bongers CC, Eijsvogels TM and Hopman MT, The effect of lesser mealworm protein on exercise‐induced muscle damage in active older adults: a randomized controlled trial. J Nutr Health Aging 28:100204 (2024).
Zhang S, Lin X, Hou Q, Hu Z, Wang Y and Wang Z, Regulation of mTORC1 by amino acids in mammalian cells: a general picture of recent advances. Anim Nutr 7:1009–1023 (2021).
Apró W, Moberg M, Hamilton DL, Ekblom B, Rooyackers O, Holmberg HC et al., Leucine does not affect mechanistic target of rapamycin complex 1 assembly but is required for maximal ribosomal protein s6 kinase 1 activity in human skeletal muscle following resistance exercise. FASEB J 29:4358–4373 (2025).
Rivero‐Pino F, Leon MJ and Montserrat‐de la Paz S, Potential applications of antimicrobial peptides from edible insects in the food supply chain: uses in agriculture, packaging, and human nutrition. Food Biosci 62:105396 (2024).
Zivkovic AM, Telis N, German JB and Hammock BD, Dietary omega‐3 fatty acids aid in the modulation of inflammation and metabolic health. Calif Agric 65:106–111 (2011).
Coqueiro AY, Rogero MM and Tirapegui J, Glutamine as an anti‐fatigue amino acid in sports nutrition. Nutrients 11:863 (2019).
Glover D and Sexton A, Edible insects and the future of food: a foresight scenario exercise on entomophagy and global food security. Institute of Development Studies 149:21–29 (2015). https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.1.2091.0564.
Adámek M, Adámková A, Mlček J, Borkovcová M and Bednářová M, Acceptability and sensory evaluation of energy bars and protein bars enriched with edible insect. Potr S J F Sci 12:431–437 (2018).
Jang H and Chung S‐J, Shape of my likes: how explicit and implicit reference frames shape the liking of insect‐based protein bar. Food Sci Biotechnol 32:1193–1203 (2023).
Ali C and Wickramasinghe S, Bug protein powder smoothies? Cricket flour muffins? Why it's time to consider eating more insects (2024). https://beyond.ubc.ca/bug-protein-powder-smoothies-cricket-flour-muffins-why-its-time-to-consider-eating-more-insects/ (20 March 2025).
Yazici GN and Ozer MS, Using edible insects in the production of cookies, biscuits, and crackers: A review. Biol Life Sci Forum, Ed. MDPI 6:80 (2021).
Ramírez‐Guzmán N, Torres‐León C, Aguillón‐Gutiérrez D and Aguirre‐Joya JA, Insects, plants, and microorganisms from dry lands as novel sources of proteins and peptides for human consumption. Foods 12:4284 (2023).
Legendre TS and Baker MA, The gateway bug to edible insect consumption: interactions between message framing, celebrity endorsement and online social support. Int J Contemp Hosp Manag 33:1810–1829 (2021).
Andreani G, Sogari G and Banović M, Snacking insects? A global market investigation. Food and Humanity 3:100403 (2024).
Herbert M and Beacom E, Exploring consumer acceptance of insect‐based snack products in Ireland. J Food Prod Mark 27:267–290 (2021).
Cunha N, Andrade V, Ruivo P and Pinto P, Effects of insect consumption on human health: a systematic review of human studies. Nutrients 15:3076 (2023).
Placentino U, Sogari G, Viscecchia R, De Devitiis B and Monacis L, The new challenge of sports nutrition: accepting insect food as dietary supplements in professional athletes. Foods 10:1117 (2021).
Kuff RF, Lucchese‐Cheung T, Quevedo‐Silva F and Giordani AM, Building Muscles from Eating Insects. Sustainability 15:15946 (2023).
Berger S and Wyss AM, Consumers' willingness to consume insect‐based protein depends on descriptive social norms. Front Sustain Food Syst 4:144 (2020).
Ardoin R and Prinyawiwatkul W, Product appropriateness, willingness to try and perceived risks of foods containing insect protein powder: a survey of U.S. consumers. Int J Food Sci Technol 55:3215–3226 (2020).
Khalil R, Kallas Z, Pujolà M and Haddarah A, Consumers' willingness to pay for snacks enriched with insects: a trending and sustainable protein source. Future Foods 9:100360 (2024).
Kim T‐K, Cha JY, Yong HI, Jang HW, Jung S and Choi Y‐S, Application of edible insects as novel protein sources and strategies for improving their processing. Food Sci Anim Resour 42:372–388 (2022).
Heath D, Vehar A, Kouřimská L, Kulma M, Škvorová P, Salmonová HŠ et al., Quality, safety and authenticity of insect protein‐based food and feed: insights from the INPROFF project. Explor Food Foodomics 2:339–362 (2024).
Ros‐Baro M, Casas‐Agustench P, Díaz‐Rizzolo DA, Batlle‐Bayer L, Adria‐Acosta F, Aguilar‐Martinez A et al., Edible insect consumption for human and planetary health: a systematic review. Int J Environ Res Public Health 19:11653 (2022).
Hartmann C, Shi J, Giusto A and Siegrist M, The psychology of eating insects: a cross‐cultural comparison between Germany and China. Food Qual Prefer 44:148–156 (2015).
Mishyna M, Chen J and Benjamin O, Sensory attributes of edible insects and insect‐based foods–future outlooks for enhancing consumer appeal. Trends Food Sci Technol 95:141–148 (2020).
van Huis A and Rumpold B, Strategies to convince consumers to eat insects? A review. Food Qual Prefer 110:104927 (2023).
Ngo HM and Moritaka M, Consumer attitudes and acceptance of insects as food and feed: a review. J Fac Agr 66:259–266 (2021).
Zou X, Liu M, Li X, Pan F, Wu X, Fang X et al., Applications of insect nutrition resources in animal production. J Agric Food Res 15:100966 (2024).
Vauterin A, Steiner B, Sillman J and Kahiluoto H, The potential of insect protein to reduce food‐based carbon footprints in Europe: the case of broiler meat production. J Clean Prod 320:128799 (2021).
Ros‐Baró M, Sánchez‐Socarrás V, Santos‐Pagès M, Bach‐Faig A and Aguilar‐Martínez A, Consumers' acceptability and perception of edible insects as an emerging protein source. Int J Environ Res Public Health 19:15756 (2022).
Rumpold B and Van Huis A, Education as a key to promoting insects as food. J Insects Food Feed 7:949–953 (2021).
Traynor A, Burns DT, Wu D, Karoonuthaisiri N, Petchkongkaew A and Elliott C, An analysis of emerging food safety and fraud risks of novel insect proteins within complex supply chains. NPJ Sci Food 8:7 (2024).
Kauppi S‐M, Pettersen IN and Boks C, Consumer acceptance of edible insects and design interventions as adoption strategy. Int J Food Des 4:39–62 (2019).
Papastavropoulou K, Xiao J and Proestos C, Edible insects: tendency or necessity (a review). eFood 4:e58 (2023).
Tavares PPLG, dos Santos LM, Pessôa LC, de Andrade Bulos RB, de Oliveira TTB, da Silva Cruz LF et al., Innovation in alternative food sources: a review of a technological state‐of‐the‐art of insects in food products. Foods 11:3792 (2022).
Żuk‐Gołaszewska K, Gałęcki R, Obremski K, Smetana S, Figiel S and Gołaszewski J, Edible insect farming in the context of the EU regulations and marketing—an overview. Insects 13:446 (2022).
Giacalone D and Jaeger SR, Consumer acceptance of novel sustainable food technologies: a multi‐country survey. J Clean Prod 408:137119 (2023).
Monaco A, Kotz J, Al Masri M, Allmeta A, Purnhagen KP and König LM, Consumers' perception of novel foods and the impact of heuristics and biases: a systematic review. Appetite 196:107285 (2024).
Cunha N, Andrade V, Macedo A, Ruivo P and Lima G, Methods of protein extraction from house crickets (Acheta domesticus) for food purposes. Foods 14:1164 (2025).
Queiroz LS, Nogueira Silva NF, Jessen F, Mohammadifar MA and Stephani R, Fernandes de Carvalho a, Perrone ÍT and Casanova F, edible insect as an alternative protein source: a review on the chemistry and functionalities of proteins under different processing methods. Heliyon 9:e14831 (2023).
Mohamad A, Tan CK, Shah NN, Nayan N, Ibrahim A, Abdi G et al., Insect protein: a pathway to sustainable protein supply chains, challenges, and prospects. J Agric Food Res 19:101678 (2025).
Dastidar DG, Chakraborty B and Halder SK, The origin, categorization, and therapeutic uses of insect antimicrobial peptides (AMPs). Proc Indian Natl Sci Acad 2025. https://doi.org/10.1007/s43538-025-00448-5.
Brady D, Grapputo A, Romoli O and Sandrelli F, Insect Cecropins, antimicrobial peptides with potential therapeutic applications. Int J Mol Sci 20:5862 (2019).
Ruiz FE A, Ortega Jácome JF, Tejera E and Alvarez‐Suarez JM, Edible insects as functional foods: bioactive compounds, health benefits, safety concerns, allergenicity, and regulatory considerations. Front Nutr 12:1571084 (2025).
European Commission, Approval of another insect/insect‐derived food as a Novel Food (2025. Available) https://food.ec.europa.eu/food-safety/novel-food/authorisations/approval-insect-novel-food_en (29 March 2025).
Larouche J, Campbell B, Hénault‐Éthier L, Banks IJ, Tomberlin JK, Preyer C et al., The edible insect sector in Canada and the United States. Anim Front 13:16–25 (2023).
Data Bridge Market Research, Asia‐Pacific Edible Insects Market – Industry Trends and Forecast to 2030 (2023). https://www.databridgemarketresearch.com/reports/asia‐pacific‐edible‐insects‐market#:~:text=These%20stringent%20rules%20and%20regulations%20are%20necessary,hazards%2C%20including%20bacteria%2C%20viruses%2C%20fungi%2C%20mycotoxins%2C%20pesticides (29 March 2025).
Gao Y, Wang D, Xu M‐L, Shi S‐S and Xiong J‐F, Toxicological characteristics of edible insects in China: a historical review. Food Chem Toxicol 119:237–251 (2018).
Lähteenmäki‐Uutela A, Marimuthu SB and Meijer N, Regulations on insects as food and feed: a global comparison. J Insects Food Feed 7:849–856 (2021).
Krongdang S, Phokasem P, Venkatachalam K and Charoenphun N, Edible insects in Thailand: an overview of status, properties, processing, and utilization in the food industry. Foods 12:2162 (2023).
Singapore Food Agency, Insect Regulatory Framework (2025). https://www.sfa.gov.sg/regulatory‐standards‐frameworks‐guidelines/insect‐regulatory‐framework/insect‐regulatory‐framework#:~:text=Species%20of%20insect%20must%20be,must%20be%20safe%20for%20consumption (29 March 2025).
Devi WD, Bonysana R, Singh KD, Koijam AS, Mukherjee PK and Rajashekar Y, Bio‐economic potential of ethno‐entomophagy and its therapeutics in India. npj Sci Food 8:15 (2024).
Institute of Public Administration Australia, Insects as Food (2023. Available). https://insectproteinassoc.com/insects‐as‐food#:~:text=Certain%20insect%20species%20are%20declared,and%20the%20escape%20of%20insects (29 March 2025).
GourmetPro, Irresistible Insects #3: Hunting Insect‐Based in Japan (2024). https://marketshake.gourmetpro.co/p/irresistible-insects-3-hunting-insectbased-japan (29 March 2025).
Zion Market Research, Insect Protein Market To Rise Significantly And Surpass $7.56 Billion By 2032 (2024). https://www.zionmarketresearch.com/news/insect-protein-market (29 March 2025).
Van Huis A, Insects as food and feed, a new emerging agricultural sector: a review. J Insects Food Feed 6:27–44 (2020).
Rumpold BA and Schlüter OK, Nutritional composition and safety aspects of edible insects. Mol Nutr Food Res 57:802–823 (2013).
Wood J, Richardson R, Nute G, Fisher A, Campo M, Kasapidou E et al., Effects of fatty acids on meat quality: a review. Meat Sci 66:21–32 (2004).
Elmadfa I and Kornsteiner M, Fats and fatty acid requirements for adults. Ann Nutr Metab 55:56–75 (2009).
Józefiak D, Józefiak A, Kierończyk B, Rawski M, Świątkiewicz S, Długosz J et al., 1. Insects–a natural nutrient source for poultry–a review. Ann Anim Sci 16:297–313 (2016).
Kulma M, Plachý V, Kouřimská L, Vrabec V, Bubová T, Adámková A et al., Nutritional value of three Blattodea species used as feed for animals. J Anim Feed Sci 25:354–360 (2016).
Finke MD, Nutrient composition of bee brood and its potential as human food. Ecol Food Nutr 44:257–270 (2005).
Finke MD, Complete nutrient content of four species of feeder insects. Zoo Biol 32:27–36 (2013).
Mariod AA, Abdel‐Wahab SI and Ain NM, Proximate amino acid, fatty acid and mineral composition of two Sudanese edible pentatomid insects. Int J Trop Insect Sci 31:145–153 (2011).
Huis A, Itterbeeck JV, Klunder H, Mertens E, Halloran a, Muir G and Vantomme P, edible insects: future prospects for food and feed security. Food and agriculture organization of the United nations 187:67–97 (2013) https://edepot.wur.nl/258042.
Belluco S, Losasso C, Maggioletti M, Alonzi C, Ricci A and Paoletti MG, Edible insects: a food security solution or a food safety concern. Anim Front 5:25–30 (2015).
USDA, FoodData Central Food Search (2024). https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/food-search?query=&type=Foundation (25 March 2025).
Prodiet fluid, How to characterize protein quality? (2019). https://www.prodiet-fluid.com/blog/how-to-characterize-protein-quality/ (27 March 2025).
Benedé S and Molina E, Chicken egg proteins and derived peptides with antioxidant properties. Foods 9:735 (2020).
Wu G, Important roles of dietary taurine, creatine, carnosine, anserine and 4‐hydroxyproline in human nutrition and health. Amino Acids 52:329–360 (2020).
Standl T, Horn P, Wilhelm S, Greim C, Freitag M, Freitag U et al., bovine haemoglobin is more potent than autologous red blood cells in restoring muscular tissue oxygenation after profound isovolaemic haemodilution in dogs. Can J Anaesth 43:714–723 (1996).
Madureira AR, Pereira CI, Gomes AMP, Pintado ME and Xavier Malcata F, Bovine whey proteins – overview on their main biological properties. Food Res Int 40:1197–1211 (2007).
Li J, Bollati C, Aiello G, Bartolomei M, Rivardo F, Boschin G et al., Evaluation of the multifunctional dipeptidyl‐peptidase IV and angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitory properties of a casein hydrolysate using cell‐free and cell‐based assays. Front Nutr 10:1198258 (2023).
Yamada Y, Muraki A, Oie M, Kanegawa N, Oda A, Sawashi Y et al., Soymorphin‐5, a soy‐derived μ‐opioid peptide, decreases glucose and triglyceride levels through activating adiponectin and PPARα systems in diabetic KKAy mice. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 302:E433–E440 (2012).
Szerszunowicz I and Kozicki S, Plant‐derived proteins and peptides as potential Immunomodulators. Molecules 29:209 (2024).
Rezvankhah A, Yarmand MS, Ghanbarzadeh B and Mirzaee H, Development of lentil peptides with potent antioxidant, antihypertensive, and antidiabetic activities along with umami taste. Food Sci Nutr 11:2974–2989 (2023).
Adhikari B, Dhungana SK, Ali MW, Adhikari A, Kim ID and Shin DH, Resveratrol, total phenolic and flavonoid contents, and antioxidant potential of seeds and sprouts of Korean peanuts. Food Sci Biotechnol 27:1275–1284 (2018).
Palacin A, Quirce S, Armentia A, Fernández‐Nieto M, Pacios LF, Asensio T et al., Wheat lipid transfer protein is a major allergen associated with baker's asthma. J Allergy Clin Immunol 120:1132–1138 (2007).
Hall F, Reddivari L and Liceaga AM, Identification and characterization of edible cricket peptides on hypertensive and glycemic in vitro inhibition and their anti‐inflammatory activity on RAW 264.7 macrophage cells. Nutrients 12:3588 (2020).
Lawal KG, Kavle RR, Akanbi TO, Mirosa M and Agyei D, Enrichment in specific fatty acids profile of Tenebrio molitor and Hermetia illucens larvae through feeding. Future Foods 3:100016 (2021).
Smola MA, Oba PM, Utterback PL, Sánchez‐Sánchez L, Parsons CM and Swanson KS, Amino acid digestibility and protein quality of mealworm‐based ingredients using the precision‐fed cecectomized rooster assay. J Anim Sci 101:skad012 (2023).
OSOA, Homemade Protein Bar using Whey Protein (2024). https://www.osoaa.in/blogs/recipe/homemade‐protein‐bar‐using‐whey‐protein?srsltid=AfmBOooBYztTtLE7q7oCPPu37Pa2w8ojxlG9C_I3PmTWfX9Z96yeAudW (29 March 2025).
Lubna's Culinary Adventures, Cricket Protein Energy Balls (2019). https://lubnascookbook.com/2019/10/07/cricket‐protein‐energy‐balls/ (25 March 2025).
Eat Grub, Cricket Flour Banana Pancakes (2024). https://www.eatgrub.co.uk/insect‐recipes/cricket‐flour‐banana‐pancakes/?srsltid=AfmBOoqHPrHLmaVIxmjomWB8J6nsRSsc2f‐uSHWLbgLyQrlFp1GdnkL6 (27 March 2025).
World Brand Design Society, Antioxidant Drinks With Insect Extracts Supfly. (2023). https://worldbranddesign.com/antioxidant-drinks-with-insect-extracts-supfly/ (28 march 2025).
Carbone JW and Pasiakos SM, Dietary protein and muscle mass: translating science to application and health benefit. Nutrients 11:1136 (2019).
Lange KW and Nakamura Y, Potential contribution of edible insects to sustainable consumption and production. Front Sustain 4:1112950 (2023).
Lisboa HM, Nascimento A, Arruda A, Sarinho A, Lima J, Batista L et al., Unlocking the potential of insect‐based proteins: sustainable solutions for global food security and nutrition. Foods 13:1846 (2024).
Sogari G, Amato M, Palmieri R, Saadoun JH, Formici G, Verneau F et al., The future is crawling: evaluating the potential of insects for food and feed security. Curr Res Food Sci 6:100504 (2023).
Payne C, Scarborough P, Rayner M and Nonaka K, Are edible insects more or less ‘healthy'than commonly consumed meats? A comparison using two nutrient profiling models developed to combat over‐and undernutrition. Eur J Clin Nutr 70:285–291 (2016).
Li M, Mao C, Li X, Jiang L, Zhang W, Li M et al., Edible insects: a new sustainable nutritional resource worth promoting. Foods 12:4073 (2023).
Ojha S, Bekhit AE‐D, Grune T and Schlüter OK, bioavailability of nutrients from edible insects. Curr Opin Food Sci 41:240–248 (2021).
Payne P, Ryan A and Finlay‐Smits S, Insects as mini‐livestock: New Zealand's public attitudes toward consuming insects. Kōtuitui New Zeal J Soc Sci Online 18:310–326 (2023).
Kim T‐K, Yong HI, Kim Y‐B, Kim H‐W and Choi Y‐S, Edible insects as a protein source: a review of public perception, processing technology, and research trends. Food Sci Anim Resour 39:521–540 (2019).
Rivas‐Navia DM, Dueñas‐Rivadeneira AA, Dueñas‐Rivadeneira JP, Aransiola SA, Maddela NR and Prasad R, Bioactive compounds of insects for food use: potentialities and risks. J Agric Food Res 14:100807 (2023).
Kurek MA, Onopiuk A, Pogorzelska‐Nowicka E, Szpicer A, Zalewska M and Półtorak A, Novel protein sources for applications in meat‐alternative products—insight and challenges. Foods 11:957 (2022).
Hasnan FFB, Feng Y, Sun T, Parraga K, Schwarz M and Zarei M, Insects as valuable sources of protein and peptides: production, functional properties, and challenges. Foods 12:4243 (2023).
Zielińska E and Pankiewicz U, The potential for the use of edible insects in the production of protein supplements for athletes. Foods 12:3654 (2023).
Wolfe RR, Branched‐chain amino acids and muscle protein synthesis in humans: myth or reality? J Int Soc Sports Nutr 14:30 (2017).
Ren L, Yang F and Gu C, A study of the purchase intention of insect protein food as alternative foods for fitness proteins. Heliyon 9:e20239 (2023).
Ochiai M, Suzuki Y, Suzuki R, Iwata K and Murayama M, Low protein digestibility‐corrected amino acid score and net nitrogen‐to‐protein conversion factor value of edible insects. Food Chem 454:139781 (2024).
López‐Martínez MI, Miguel M and Garcés‐Rimón M, Protein and sport: alternative sources and strategies for bioactive and sustainable sports nutrition. Front Nutr 9:926043 (2022).
Ferrazzano GF, D'Ambrosio F, Caruso S, Gatto R and Caruso S, Bioactive peptides derived from edible insects: effects on human health and possible applications in dentistry. Nutrients 15:4611 (2023).
Psarianos M, Aghababaei F and Schlüter OK, Bioactive compounds in edible insects: aspects of cultivation, processing and nutrition. Food Res Int 203:115802 (2025).
Godde CM, Mason‐D'Croz D, Mayberry DE, Thornton PK and Herrero M, impacts of climate change on the livestock food supply chain; a review of the evidence. Glob Food Sec 28:100488 (2021).
Aidoo OF, Osei‐Owusu J, Asante K, Dofuor AK, Boateng BO, Debrah SK et al., Insects as food and medicine: a sustainable solution for global health and environmental challenges. Front Nutr 10:1113219 (2023).
FAO, ‘Worm’ up to the idea of edible insects (2022). https://www.fao.org/newsroom/story/-Worm-up-to-the-idea-of-edible-insects/en (25 March 2025).
Mannaa M, Mansour A, Park I, Lee D‐W and Seo Y‐S, Insect‐based agri‐food waste valorization: agricultural applications and roles of insect gut microbiota. Environ Sci Ecotechnol 17:100287 (2024).
Van Huis A and Oonincx DG, The environmental sustainability of insects as food and feed. A review. Agron Sustain Dev 37:1–14 (2017).
Olivadese M and Dindo ML, Edible insects: a historical and cultural perspective on entomophagy with a focus on Western societies. Insects 14:690 (2023).
Onwezen MC, Bouwman EP, Reinders MJ and Dagevos H, A systematic review on consumer acceptance of alternative proteins: pulses, algae, insects, plant‐based meat alternatives, and cultured meat. Appetite 159:105058 (2021).
Hermans WJ, Senden JM, Churchward‐Venne TA, Paulussen KJ, Fuchs CJ, Smeets JS et al., Insects are a viable protein source for human consumption: from insect protein digestion to postprandial muscle protein synthesis in vivo in humans: a double‐blind randomized trial. Am J Clin Nutr 114:934–944 (2021).
Baigts‐Allende D, Doost AS, Ramírez‐Rodrigues M, Dewettinck K, Van der Meeren P, de Meulenaer B et al., Insect protein concentrates from Mexican edible insects: structural and functional characterization. LWT 152:112267 (2021).
Huang C, Feng W, Xiong J, Wang T, Wang W, Wang C et al., Impact of drying method on the nutritional value of the edible insect protein from black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens L.) larvae: amino acid composition, nutritional value evaluation, in vitro digestibility, and thermal properties. Eur Food Res Technol 245:11–21 (2019).
Nsevolo Miankeba P, Taofic A, Kiatoko N, Mutiaka K, Francis F and Caparros Megido R, Protein content and amino acid profiles of selected edible insect species from the Democratic Republic of Congo relevant for transboundary trade across Africa. Insects 13:994 (2022).
Tan YL, Tan FA and Chye FY, Nutritional properties of selected edible insects. Biol Life Sci Forum 40:43 (2024).
Janssen RH, Vincken J‐P, van den Broek LAM, Fogliano V and Lakemond CMM, Nitrogen‐to‐protein conversion factors for three edible insects: Tenebrio molitor, Alphitobius diaperinus, and Hermetia illucens. J Agric Food Chem 65:2275–2278 (2017).
Yong HI, Kim TK, Cha JY, Lee JH, Kang MC, Jung S et al., Effects of edible insect extracts on the antioxidant, physiochemical, and microbial properties of Tteokgalbi during refrigerated storage. Food Biosci 52:102377 (2023).
Jakubczyk A, Karaś M, Rybczyńska‐Tkaczyk K, Zielińska E and Zieliński D, Current trends of bioactive peptides‐new sources and therapeutic effect. Foods 9:846 (2020).
Mintah BK, He R, Agyekum AA, Dabbour M, Golly MK and Ma H, Edible insect protein for food applications: extraction, composition, and functional properties. J Food Process Eng 43:e13362 (2020).
Saetae D, Eri silkworm pupae protein: a novel edible insect ingredient for enhancing ice cream quality and consumer acceptance. Future Foods 11:100533 (2025).
Ogidi CO, Oluwayemisi OA, Seun BR and Aladejana OM, Evaluation of nutrient contents and antioxidant activity of wheat cookies fortified with mushroom (Termitomyces robustus) and edible insects. J Culin Sci Technol 23:34–52 (2025).
Hoon Lee J, Kim Y‐J, Kim T‐K, Song K‐M and Choi Y‐S, Effect of ethanol treatment on the structural, techno‐functional, and antioxidant properties of edible insect protein obtained from Tenebrio molitor larvae. Food Chem 437:137852 (2024).
Oliveira LA, Pereira SMS, Dias KA, Paes SS, Grancieri M, Jimenez LGS et al., nutritional content, amino acid profile, and protein properties of edible insects (Tenebrio molitor and Gryllus assimilis) powders at different stages of development. J Food Compos Anal 125:105804 (2024).
Lampová B, Kopecká A, Šmíd P, Kulma M, Kurečka M, Ogrinc N et al., Evaluating protein quality in edible insects: a comparative analysis of house cricket, yellow mealworm, and migratory locust using DIAAS methodologies. LWT 213:117062 (2024).
Petrusán J‐I, Rawel H and Huschek G, Protein‐rich vegetal sources and trends in human nutrition: a review. Curr Top Pept Protein Res 17:1–19 (2016).
Zeng Y, Chen E, Zhang X, Li D, Wang Q and Sun Y, Nutritional value and physicochemical characteristics of alternative protein for meat and dairy‐a review. Foods 11:3326 (2022).
Malla N, Nørgaard JV and Roos N, Protein quality of edible insects in the view of current assessment methods. Anim Front 13:50–63 (2023).
Tang C, Yang D, Liao H, Sun H, Liu C, Wei L et al., Edible insects as a food source: a review. Food Prod Process Nutr 1:8 (2019).
Orkusz A, Edible insects versus meat—nutritional comparison: knowledge of their composition is the key to good health. Nutrients 13:1207 (2021).
Kouřimská L and Adámková A, Nutritional and sensory quality of edible insects. NFS Journal 4:22–26 (2016).
Xiaoming C, Ying F, Hong Z and Zhiyong C, Review of the nutritive value of edible insects. Forest insects as food: humans bite back. Proceedings of a workshop on Asia‐Pacific resources and their potential for development, Chiang Mai, Thailand, 19–21 February, 2008: 85–92 (2010).
Hertzler SR, Lieblein‐Boff JC, Weiler M and Allgeier C, Plant proteins: assessing their nutritional quality and effects on health and physical function. Nutrients 12:3704 (2020).
Vangsoe MT, Thogersen R, Bertram HC, Heckmann L‐HL and Hansen M, ingestion of insect protein isolate enhances blood amino acid concentrations similar to soy protein in a human trial. Nutrients 10:1357 (2018).
Schmidt A, Call L‐M, Macheiner L and Mayer HK, Determination of vitamin B12 in four edible insect species by immunoaffinity and ultra‐high performance liquid chromatography. Food Chem 281:124–129 (2019).
Niklewicz A, Smith AD, Smith A, Holzer A, Klein A, McCaddon A et al., The importance of vitamin B12 for individuals choosing plant‐based diets. Eur J Nutr 62:1551–1559 (2023).
Weru J, Chege P and Kinyuru J, Nutritional potential of edible insects: a systematic review of published data. Int J Trop Insect Sci 41:2015–2037 (2021).
Oibiokpa FI, Akanya H, Jigam A and Saidu A, Nutrient and antinutrient compositions of some edible insect species in northern Nigeria. Fountain Journal of Natural and Applied Sciences 6:9–24 (2017).
Ishara J, Matendo R, Siddiqui SA, Niassy S, Katcho K and Kinyuru J, The contribution of commonly consumed edible insects to nutrition security in the eastern D.R. Congo. Sci Rep 14:16186 (2024).
Latunde‐Dada GO, Yang W and Vera Aviles M, In vitro iron availability from insects and sirloin beef. J Agric Food Chem 64:8420–8424 (2016).
Gorman MJ, Iron homeostasis in insects. Annu Rev Entomol 68:51–67 (2023).
Lin P‐H, Sermersheim M, Li H, Lee PH, Steinberg SM and Ma J, Zinc in wound healing modulation. Nutrients 10:16 (2017).
Finke MD, Nutrient content of insects, in Encyclopedia of Entomology, ed. by Capinera JL. Springer Netherlands, Dordrecht, pp. 2623–2646 (2008).
Adámková A, Kouřimská L, Borkovcová M, Mlček J and Bednářová M, Calcium in edible insects and its use in human nutrition. Potravin Slovak J Food Sci 8:233–238 (2014).
Hassan SA, Altemimi AB, Hashmi AA, Shahzadi S, Mujahid W, Ali A et al., Edible crickets, as a possible way to curb protein‐energy malnutrition: nutritional status, food applications, and safety concerns. Food Chem X 23:101533 (2024).
Anaduaka EG, Uchendu NO, Osuji DO, Ene LN and Amoke OP, Nutritional compositions of two edible insects: Oryctes rhinocero larva and Zonocerus variegatus. Heliyon 7:e06531 (2021).
Shah AA and Wanapat M, Gryllus testaceus walker (crickets) farming management, chemical composition, nutritive profile, and their effect on animal digestibility. Entomol Res 51:639–649 (2021).
Kępińska‐Pacelik J, Biel W, Podsiadło C, Tokarczyk G, Biernacka P and Bienkiewicz G, Nutritional value of banded cricket and mealworm larvae. Foods 12:4174 (2023).
Lu M, Zhu C, Smetana S, Zhao M, Zhang H, Zhang F et al., Minerals in edible insects: a review of content and potential for sustainable sourcing. Food Sci Hum Wellness 13:65–74 (2024).
Chakravorty J, Ghosh S, Megu K, Jung C and Meyer‐Rochow VB, Nutritional and anti‐nutritional composition of Oecophylla smaragdina (hymenoptera: Formicidae) and Odontotermes sp. (Isoptera: Termitidae): two preferred edible insects of Arunachal Pradesh, India. J Asia Pac Entomol 19:711–720 (2016).
Zhou Y, Wang D, Zhou S, Duan H, Guo J and Yan W, Nutritional composition, health benefits, and application value of edible insects: a review. Foods 11:3961 (2022).
Kulma M, Kouřimská L, Homolková D, Božik M, Plachý V and Vrabec V, Effect of developmental stage on the nutritional value of edible insects. A case study with Blaberus craniifer and Zophobas morio. J Food Compos Anal 92:103570 (2020).
Kinyuru JN, Mogendi JB, Riwa CA and Ndung'u NW, Edible insects—a novel source of essential nutrients for human diet: learning from traditional knowledge. Anim Front 5:14–19 (2015).
Pan J, Xu H, Cheng Y, Mintah BK, Dabbour M, Yang F et al., Recent insight on edible insect protein: extraction, functional properties, Allergenicity, bioactivity, and applications. Foods 11:29 (2022).
Yi L, Lakemond CM, Sagis LM, Eisner‐Schadler V, Van Huis A and van Boekel MA, Extraction and characterisation of protein fractions from five insect species. Food Chem 141:3341–3348 (2013).
Cajas‐Lopez K and Ordoñez‐Araque R, Analysis of chontacuro (Rhynchophorus palmarum L.) protein and fat content and incorporation into traditional Ecuadorian dishes. J Insects Food Feed 8:1521–1528 (2022).
dos Santos Aguilar JG, An overview of lipids from insects. Biocatal Agric Biotechnol 33:101967 (2021).
Sun‐Waterhouse D, Waterhouse GI, You L, Zhang J, Liu Y, Ma L et al., Transforming insect biomass into consumer wellness foods: a review. Food Res Int 89:129–151 (2016).
Nowak V, Persijn D, Rittenschober D and Charrondiere UR, Review of food composition data for edible insects. Food Chem 193:39–46 (2016).
Huang G, Zhang Y, Liu F, Xiao J and Huang D, Fatty acid profile of insect oil and regulation mechanism as nutritious and functional oil: An Integrative Review. J Food Compos Anal 137:106809 (2024).
Raksakantong P, Meeso N, Kubola J and Siriamornpun S, Fatty acids and proximate composition of eight Thai edible terricolous insects. Food Res Int 43:350–355 (2010).
Brogan EN, Park Y‐L, Shen C, Matak KE and Jaczynski J, Characterization of lipids in insect powders. LWT 184:115040 (2023).
Stull VJ and Weir TL, Chitin and omega‐3 fatty acids in edible insects have underexplored benefits for the gut microbiome and human health. Nature Food 4:283–287 (2023).
Kolobe SD, Manyelo TG, Malematja E, Sebola NA and Mabelebele M, Fats and major fatty acids present in edible insects utilised as food and livestock feed. Vet Anim Sci 22:100312 (2023).
Müller A, Insects as food in Laos and Thailand: a case of “westernisation”? Asian J Soc Sci 47:204–223 (2019).
Ushakova N, Brodskii E, Kovalenko A, Bastrakov A, Kozlova A and Pavlov D, Characteristics of lipid fractions of larvae of the black soldier fly Hermetia illucens, in, ed. by Biophys DB. Springer, pp. 209–212 (2016).
Kunanusornchai W, Witoonpanich B, Tawonsawatruk T, Pichyangkura R, Chatsudthipong V and Muanprasat C, Chitosan oligosaccharide suppresses synovial inflammation via AMPK activation: an in vitro and in vivo study. Pharmacol Res 113:458–467 (2016).
Rajesh KM, Govindula A, Selvaraj S, Mudgal J and Raval R, Enzymatic Chito‐oligosaccharides from Alcaligenes faecalis: a potential therapy for Neuroinflammation and associated Behavioural changes. Carbohydr Polym Technol Appl 10:100719 (2025).
Hu H, Xia H, Zou X, Li X, Zhang Z, Yao X et al., N‐acetyl‐chitooligosaccharide attenuates inflammatory responses by suppression of NF‐κB signaling, MAPK and NLRP3 inflammasome in macrophages. J Funct Foods 78:104364 (2021).
Rehman KU, Hollah C, Wiesotzki K, Heinz V, Aganovic K, Rehman RU et al., Insect‐derived chitin and chitosan: a still unexploited resource for the edible insect sector. Sustainability 15:4864 (2023).
Soetemans L, Uyttebroek M and Bastiaens L, Characteristics of chitin extracted from black soldier fly in different life stages. Int J Biol Macromol 165:3206–3214 (2020).
Psarianos M, Ojha S, Schneider R and Schlüter OK, Chitin isolation and chitosan production from house crickets (Acheta domesticus) by environmentally friendly methods. Molecules 27:5005 (2022).
Kipkoech C, Beyond proteins—edible insects as a source of dietary fiber. Polysaccharides 4:116–128 (2023).
Imathiu S, Benefits and food safety concerns associated with consumption of edible insects. NFS journal 18:1–11 (2020).
Lopez‐Santamarina A, Mondragon AC, lamas a, Miranda JM, Franco CM and Cepeda a, animal‐origin prebiotics based on chitin: an alternative for the future? A critical review. Foods 9:782 (2020).
Ma J, Faqir Y, Tan C and Khaliq G, Terrestrial insects as a promising source of chitosan and recent developments in its application for various industries. Food Chem 373:131407 (2022).
Kipkoech C, Kinyuru JN, Imathiu S, Meyer‐Rochow VB and Roos N, In vitro study of cricket chitosan's potential as a prebiotic and a promoter of probiotic microorganisms to control pathogenic bacteria in the human gut. Foods 10:2310 (2021).
Unuofin JO, Odeniyi OA, Majengbasan OS, Igwaran A, Moloantoa KM, Khetsha ZP et al., Chitinases: expanding the boundaries of knowledge beyond routinized chitin degradation. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int 31:38045–38060 (2024).
Zhang M, Haga A, Sekiguchi H and Hirano S, Structure of insect chitin isolated from beetle larva cuticle and silkworm (Bombyx mori) pupa exuvia. Int J Biol Macromol 27:99–105 (2000).
Panzella L, Moccia F, Nasti R, Marzorati S, Verotta L and Napolitano A, Bioactive phenolic compounds from agri‐food wastes: an update on green and sustainable extraction methodologies. Front Nutr 7:60 (2020).
Lee JH, Kim T‐K, Jeong CH, Yong HI, Cha JY, Kim B‐K et al., Biological activity and processing technologies of edible insects: a review. Food Sci Biotechnol 30:1003–1023 (2021).
Ssepuuya G, Kagulire J, Katongole J, Kabbo D, Claes J and Nakimbugwe D, Suitable extraction conditions for determination of total anti‐oxidant capacity and phenolic compounds in Ruspolia differens Serville. J Insects Food Feed 7:205–214 (2021).
Patyra E and Kwiatek K, Insect meals and insect antimicrobial peptides as an alternative for antibiotics and growth promoters in livestock production. Pathogens 12:854 (2023).
Eleftherianos I, Zhang W, Heryanto C, Mohamed A, Contreras G, Tettamanti G et al., Diversity of insect antimicrobial peptides and proteins‐a functional perspective: a review. Int J Biol Macromol 191:277–287 (2021).
Lin X, Wang F, Lu Y, Wang J, Chen J, Yu Y et al., A review on edible insects in China: nutritional supply, environmental benefits, and potential applications. Curr Res Food Sci 7:100596 (2023).
M R, D M, Gowda VG and Gowda K, Entomophagy: a sustainable food alternative to save planet. IP J Nutr Metab Health Sci 7:7–13 (2024).
Ordoñez‐Araque R, Quishpillo‐Miranda N and Ramos‐Guerrero L, Edible insects for humans and animals: nutritional composition and an option for mitigating environmental damage. Insects 13:944 (2022).
Jafir M, Abbas M, Irfan M and Zia‐Ur‐Rehman M, Greenhouse gases emission from edible insect species, in Advances and Technology Development in Greenhouse Gases: Emission, Capture and Conversion. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. 205–225 (2024).
Schrögel P and Wätjen W, Insects for food and feed‐safety aspects related to mycotoxins and metals. Foods 8:288 (2019).
Malematja E, Manyelo TG, Sebola NA, Kolobe SD and Mabelebele M, The accumulation of heavy metals in feeder insects and their impact on animal production. Sci Total Environ 885:163716 (2023).
Gori A, Armani A, Pedonese F, Benini O, Mancini S and Nuvoloni R, Heavy metals (Pb, Cd, Ni) in insect‐based products for human consumption sold by e‐commerce in the EU market: occurrence and potential health risk associated with dietary exposure. Food Control 167:110781 (2025).
Wong L, Huang CH and Lee BW, Shellfish and house dust mite allergies: is the link tropomyosin? Allergy Asthma Immunol Res 8:101–106 (2016).
Almeida CC, Alvares TS, Costa MP and Conte‐Junior CA, Protein and amino acid profiles of different whey protein supplements. J Diet Suppl 13:313–323 (2016).
Bird SP, Nienhuis M, Biagioli B, De Pauw K and Meeusen R, Supplementation strategies for strength and power athletes: carbohydrate, protein, and amino acid ingestion. Nutrients 16:1886 (2024).
Lampová B, Doskočil I, Šmíd P and Kouřimská L, Comparison of cricket protein powder and whey protein digestibility. Molecules 29:3598 (2024).
Réhault‐Godbert S, Guyot N and Nys Y, The Golden egg: nutritional value, bioactivities, and emerging benefits for human health. Nutrients 11:684 (2019).
Liceaga AM, Edible insects, a valuable protein source from ancient to modern times. Adv Food Nutr Res 101:129–152 (2022).
Nowakowski AC, Miller AC, Miller ME, Xiao H and Wu X, Potential health benefits of edible insects. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 62:3499–3508 (2022).
Pelletier N, Ibarburu M and Xin H, Comparison of the environmental footprint of the egg industry in the United States in 1960 and 20101. Poult Sci 93:241–255 (2014).
Evenepoel P, Geypens B, Luypaerts A, Hiele M, Ghoos Y and Rutgeerts P, Digestibility of cooked and raw egg protein in humans as assessed by stable isotope Techniques123. J Nutr 128:1716–1722 (1998).
Collins CM, Vaskou P and Kountouris Y, Insect food products in the Western world: assessing the potential of a new ‘green’ market. Ann Entomol Soc Am 112:518–528 (2019).
Liceaga AM, Processing insects for use in the food and feed industry. Curr Opin Insect Sci 48:32–36 (2021).
Rojas‐Downing MM, Nejadhashemi AP, Harrigan T and Woznicki SA, Climate change and livestock: impacts, adaptation, and mitigation. Clim Risk Manag 16:145–163 (2017).
Grossi G, Goglio P, Vitali A and Williams AG, Livestock and climate change: impact of livestock on climate and mitigation strategies. Anim Front 9:69–76 (2019).
Kutay H, Water consumption and control in farm animals. BIO Web Conf 85:1062 (2024).
Bacenetti J, Bava L, Schievano A and Zucali M, Whey protein concentrate (WPC) production: environmental impact assessment. J Food Eng 224:139–147 (2018).
Espitia Buitrago PA, Hernández LM, Burkart S, Palmer N and Cardoso Arango JA, Forage‐fed insects as food and feed source: opportunities and constraints of edible insects in the tropics. Front Sustain Food Syst 5:724628 (2021).
Madau FA, Arru B, Furesi R and Pulina P, Insect farming for feed and food production from a circular business model perspective. Sustainability 12:5418 (2020).
Atherton P and Smith K, Muscle protein synthesis in response to nutrition and exercise. J Physiol 590:1049–1057 (2012).
Witard OC, Bannock L and Tipton KD, Making sense of muscle protein synthesis: a focus on muscle growth during resistance training. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab 32:49–61 (2021).
Acosta‐Estrada BA, Reyes A, Rosell CM, Rodrigo D and Ibarra‐Herrera CC, Benefits and challenges in the incorporation of insects in food products. Front Nutr 8:687712 (2021).
Bukkens SG, The nutritional value of edible insects. Ecol Food Nutr 36:287–319 (1997).
Churchward‐Venne TA, Pinckaers PJ, van Loon JJ and van Loon LJ, Consideration of insects as a source of dietary protein for human consumption. Nutr Rev 75:1035–1045 (2017).
Drummond MJ and Rasmussen BB, Leucine‐enriched nutrients and the regulation of mammalian target of rapamycin signalling and human skeletal muscle protein synthesis. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care 11:222–226 (2008).
De Bandt J‐P, Leucine and mammalian target of rapamycin–dependent activation of muscle protein synthesis in aging. J Nutr 146:2616S–2624S (2016).
Tuhumury H, Edible insects: alternative protein for sustainable food and nutritional security, in IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science. IOP Publishing, Ambon, Indonesia, p. 12029 (2021).
Weinert DJ, Nutrition and muscle protein synthesis: a descriptive review. J Can Chiropr Assoc 53:186 (2009).
Ely IA, Phillips BE, Smith K, Wilkinson DJ, Piasecki M, Breen L et al., A focus on leucine in the nutritional regulation of human skeletal muscle metabolism in ageing, exercise and unloading states. Clin Nutr 42:1849–1865 (2023).
Magara HJO, Niassy S, Ayieko MA, Mukundamago M, Egonyu JP, Tanga CM et al., Edible crickets (Orthoptera) around the world: distribution, nutritional value, and other benefits‐a review. Front Nutr 7:537915 (2020).
Gorissen SHM, Crombag JJR, Senden JMG, Waterval WAH, Bierau J, Verdijk LB et al., Protein content and amino acid composition of commercially available plant‐based protein isolates. Amino Acids 50:1685–1695 (2018).
Aragon AA and Schoenfeld BJ, Nutrient timing revisited: is there a post‐exercise anabolic window? J Int Soc Sports Nutr 10:1–11 (2013).
Stokes T, Hector AJ, Morton RW, McGlory C and Phillips SM, Recent perspectives regarding the role of dietary protein for the promotion of muscle hypertrophy with resistance exercise training. Nutrients 10:180 (2018).
Schoenfeld BJ and Aragon AA, Is there a postworkout anabolic window of opportunity for nutrient consumption? Clearing up controversies. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther 48:911–914 (2018).
Schoenfeld BJ, Aragon AA and Krieger JW, The effect of protein timing on muscle strength and hypertrophy: a meta‐analysis. J Int Soc Sports Nutr 10:53 (2013).
Kerksick CM, Arent S, Schoenfeld BJ, Stout JR, Campbell B, Wilborn CD et al., International Society of Sports Nutrition position stand: nutrient timing. J Int Soc Sports Nutr 14:1–21 (2017).
Caballero‐García A and Córdova‐Martínez A, Muscle recovery and nutrition. Nutrients 14:2416 (2022).
Gravel A and Doyen A, The use of edible insect proteins in food: challenges and issues related to their functional properties. Innovative Food Science & Emerging Technologies 59:102272 (2020).
Rivero‐Pino F, Gonzalez‐de la Rosa T and Montserrat‐de la Paz S, Edible insects as a source of biopeptides and their role in immunonutrition. Food Funct 15:2789–2798 (2024).
Koopmans L, Spoelder M, Bongers CC, Eijsvogels TM and Hopman MT, The effect of lesser mealworm protein on exercise‐induced muscle damage in active older adults: a randomized controlled trial. J Nutr Health Aging 28:100204 (2024).
Zhang S, Lin X, Hou Q, Hu Z, Wang Y and Wang Z, Regulation of mTORC1 by amino acids in mammalian cells: a general picture of recent advances. Anim Nutr 7:1009–1023 (2021).
Apró W, Moberg M, Hamilton DL, Ekblom B, Rooyackers O, Holmberg HC et al., Leucine does not affect mechanistic target of rapamycin complex 1 assembly but is required for maximal ribosomal protein s6 kinase 1 activity in human skeletal muscle following resistance exercise. FASEB J 29:4358–4373 (2025).
Rivero‐Pino F, Leon MJ and Montserrat‐de la Paz S, Potential applications of antimicrobial peptides from edible insects in the food supply chain: uses in agriculture, packaging, and human nutrition. Food Biosci 62:105396 (2024).
Zivkovic AM, Telis N, German JB and Hammock BD, Dietary omega‐3 fatty acids aid in the modulation of inflammation and metabolic health. Calif Agric 65:106–111 (2011).
Coqueiro AY, Rogero MM and Tirapegui J, Glutamine as an anti‐fatigue amino acid in sports nutrition. Nutrients 11:863 (2019).
Glover D and Sexton A, Edible insects and the future of food: a foresight scenario exercise on entomophagy and global food security. Institute of Development Studies 149:21–29 (2015). https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.1.2091.0564.
Adámek M, Adámková A, Mlček J, Borkovcová M and Bednářová M, Acceptability and sensory evaluation of energy bars and protein bars enriched with edible insect. Potr S J F Sci 12:431–437 (2018).
Jang H and Chung S‐J, Shape of my likes: how explicit and implicit reference frames shape the liking of insect‐based protein bar. Food Sci Biotechnol 32:1193–1203 (2023).
Ali C and Wickramasinghe S, Bug protein powder smoothies? Cricket flour muffins? Why it's time to consider eating more insects (2024). https://beyond.ubc.ca/bug-protein-powder-smoothies-cricket-flour-muffins-why-its-time-to-consider-eating-more-insects/ (20 March 2025).
Yazici GN and Ozer MS, Using edible insects in the production of cookies, biscuits, and crackers: A review. Biol Life Sci Forum, Ed. MDPI 6:80 (2021).
Ramírez‐Guzmán N, Torres‐León C, Aguillón‐Gutiérrez D and Aguirre‐Joya JA, Insects, plants, and microorganisms from dry lands as novel sources of proteins and peptides for human consumption. Foods 12:4284 (2023).
Legendre TS and Baker MA, The gateway bug to edible insect consumption: interactions between message framing, celebrity endorsement and online social support. Int J Contemp Hosp Manag 33:1810–1829 (2021).
Andreani G, Sogari G and Banović M, Snacking insects? A global market investigation. Food and Humanity 3:100403 (2024).
Herbert M and Beacom E, Exploring consumer acceptance of insect‐based snack products in Ireland. J Food Prod Mark 27:267–290 (2021).
Cunha N, Andrade V, Ruivo P and Pinto P, Effects of insect consumption on human health: a systematic review of human studies. Nutrients 15:3076 (2023).
Placentino U, Sogari G, Viscecchia R, De Devitiis B and Monacis L, The new challenge of sports nutrition: accepting insect food as dietary supplements in professional athletes. Foods 10:1117 (2021).
Kuff RF, Lucchese‐Cheung T, Quevedo‐Silva F and Giordani AM, Building Muscles from Eating Insects. Sustainability 15:15946 (2023).
Berger S and Wyss AM, Consumers' willingness to consume insect‐based protein depends on descriptive social norms. Front Sustain Food Syst 4:144 (2020).
Ardoin R and Prinyawiwatkul W, Product appropriateness, willingness to try and perceived risks of foods containing insect protein powder: a survey of U.S. consumers. Int J Food Sci Technol 55:3215–3226 (2020).
Khalil R, Kallas Z, Pujolà M and Haddarah A, Consumers' willingness to pay for snacks enriched with insects: a trending and sustainable protein source. Future Foods 9:100360 (2024).
Kim T‐K, Cha JY, Yong HI, Jang HW, Jung S and Choi Y‐S, Application of edible insects as novel protein sources and strategies for improving their processing. Food Sci Anim Resour 42:372–388 (2022).
Heath D, Vehar A, Kouřimská L, Kulma M, Škvorová P, Salmonová HŠ et al., Quality, safety and authenticity of insect protein‐based food and feed: insights from the INPROFF project. Explor Food Foodomics 2:339–362 (2024).
Ros‐Baro M, Casas‐Agustench P, Díaz‐Rizzolo DA, Batlle‐Bayer L, Adria‐Acosta F, Aguilar‐Martinez A et al., Edible insect consumption for human and planetary health: a systematic review. Int J Environ Res Public Health 19:11653 (2022).
Hartmann C, Shi J, Giusto A and Siegrist M, The psychology of eating insects: a cross‐cultural comparison between Germany and China. Food Qual Prefer 44:148–156 (2015).
Mishyna M, Chen J and Benjamin O, Sensory attributes of edible insects and insect‐based foods–future outlooks for enhancing consumer appeal. Trends Food Sci Technol 95:141–148 (2020).
van Huis A and Rumpold B, Strategies to convince consumers to eat insects? A review. Food Qual Prefer 110:104927 (2023).
Ngo HM and Moritaka M, Consumer attitudes and acceptance of insects as food and feed: a review. J Fac Agr 66:259–266 (2021).
Zou X, Liu M, Li X, Pan F, Wu X, Fang X et al., Applications of insect nutrition resources in animal production. J Agric Food Res 15:100966 (2024).
Vauterin A, Steiner B, Sillman J and Kahiluoto H, The potential of insect protein to reduce food‐based carbon footprints in Europe: the case of broiler meat production. J Clean Prod 320:128799 (2021).
Ros‐Baró M, Sánchez‐Socarrás V, Santos‐Pagès M, Bach‐Faig A and Aguilar‐Martínez A, Consumers' acceptability and perception of edible insects as an emerging protein source. Int J Environ Res Public Health 19:15756 (2022).
Rumpold B and Van Huis A, Education as a key to promoting insects as food. J Insects Food Feed 7:949–953 (2021).
Traynor A, Burns DT, Wu D, Karoonuthaisiri N, Petchkongkaew A and Elliott C, An analysis of emerging food safety and fraud risks of novel insect proteins within complex supply chains. NPJ Sci Food 8:7 (2024).
Kauppi S‐M, Pettersen IN and Boks C, Consumer acceptance of edible insects and design interventions as adoption strategy. Int J Food Des 4:39–62 (2019).
Papastavropoulou K, Xiao J and Proestos C, Edible insects: tendency or necessity (a review). eFood 4:e58 (2023).
Tavares PPLG, dos Santos LM, Pessôa LC, de Andrade Bulos RB, de Oliveira TTB, da Silva Cruz LF et al., Innovation in alternative food sources: a review of a technological state‐of‐the‐art of insects in food products. Foods 11:3792 (2022).
Żuk‐Gołaszewska K, Gałęcki R, Obremski K, Smetana S, Figiel S and Gołaszewski J, Edible insect farming in the context of the EU regulations and marketing—an overview. Insects 13:446 (2022).
Giacalone D and Jaeger SR, Consumer acceptance of novel sustainable food technologies: a multi‐country survey. J Clean Prod 408:137119 (2023).
Monaco A, Kotz J, Al Masri M, Allmeta A, Purnhagen KP and König LM, Consumers' perception of novel foods and the impact of heuristics and biases: a systematic review. Appetite 196:107285 (2024).
Cunha N, Andrade V, Macedo A, Ruivo P and Lima G, Methods of protein extraction from house crickets (Acheta domesticus) for food purposes. Foods 14:1164 (2025).
Queiroz LS, Nogueira Silva NF, Jessen F, Mohammadifar MA and Stephani R, Fernandes de Carvalho a, Perrone ÍT and Casanova F, edible insect as an alternative protein source: a review on the chemistry and functionalities of proteins under different processing methods. Heliyon 9:e14831 (2023).
Mohamad A, Tan CK, Shah NN, Nayan N, Ibrahim A, Abdi G et al., Insect protein: a pathway to sustainable protein supply chains, challenges, and prospects. J Agric Food Res 19:101678 (2025).
Dastidar DG, Chakraborty B and Halder SK, The origin, categorization, and therapeutic uses of insect antimicrobial peptides (AMPs). Proc Indian Natl Sci Acad 2025. https://doi.org/10.1007/s43538-025-00448-5.
Brady D, Grapputo A, Romoli O and Sandrelli F, Insect Cecropins, antimicrobial peptides with potential therapeutic applications. Int J Mol Sci 20:5862 (2019).
Ruiz FE A, Ortega Jácome JF, Tejera E and Alvarez‐Suarez JM, Edible insects as functional foods: bioactive compounds, health benefits, safety concerns, allergenicity, and regulatory considerations. Front Nutr 12:1571084 (2025).
European Commission, Approval of another insect/insect‐derived food as a Novel Food (2025. Available) https://food.ec.europa.eu/food-safety/novel-food/authorisations/approval-insect-novel-food_en (29 March 2025).
Larouche J, Campbell B, Hénault‐Éthier L, Banks IJ, Tomberlin JK, Preyer C et al., The edible insect sector in Canada and the United States. Anim Front 13:16–25 (2023).
Data Bridge Market Research, Asia‐Pacific Edible Insects Market – Industry Trends and Forecast to 2030 (2023). https://www.databridgemarketresearch.com/reports/asia‐pacific‐edible‐insects‐market#:~:text=These%20stringent%20rules%20and%20regulations%20are%20necessary,hazards%2C%20including%20bacteria%2C%20viruses%2C%20fungi%2C%20mycotoxins%2C%20pesticides (29 March 2025).
Gao Y, Wang D, Xu M‐L, Shi S‐S and Xiong J‐F, Toxicological characteristics of edible insects in China: a historical review. Food Chem Toxicol 119:237–251 (2018).
Lähteenmäki‐Uutela A, Marimuthu SB and Meijer N, Regulations on insects as food and feed: a global comparison. J Insects Food Feed 7:849–856 (2021).
Krongdang S, Phokasem P, Venkatachalam K and Charoenphun N, Edible insects in Thailand: an overview of status, properties, processing, and utilization in the food industry. Foods 12:2162 (2023).
Singapore Food Agency, Insect Regulatory Framework (2025). https://www.sfa.gov.sg/regulatory‐standards‐frameworks‐guidelines/insect‐regulatory‐framework/insect‐regulatory‐framework#:~:text=Species%20of%20insect%20must%20be,must%20be%20safe%20for%20consumption (29 March 2025).
Devi WD, Bonysana R, Singh KD, Koijam AS, Mukherjee PK and Rajashekar Y, Bio‐economic potential of ethno‐entomophagy and its therapeutics in India. npj Sci Food 8:15 (2024).
Institute of Public Administration Australia, Insects as Food (2023. Available). https://insectproteinassoc.com/insects‐as‐food#:~:text=Certain%20insect%20species%20are%20declared,and%20the%20escape%20of%20insects (29 March 2025).
GourmetPro, Irresistible Insects #3: Hunting Insect‐Based in Japan (2024). https://marketshake.gourmetpro.co/p/irresistible-insects-3-hunting-insectbased-japan (29 March 2025).
Zion Market Research, Insect Protein Market To Rise Significantly And Surpass $7.56 Billion By 2032 (2024). https://www.zionmarketresearch.com/news/insect-protein-market (29 March 2025).
Van Huis A, Insects as food and feed, a new emerging agricultural sector: a review. J Insects Food Feed 6:27–44 (2020).
Rumpold BA and Schlüter OK, Nutritional composition and safety aspects of edible insects. Mol Nutr Food Res 57:802–823 (2013).
Wood J, Richardson R, Nute G, Fisher A, Campo M, Kasapidou E et al., Effects of fatty acids on meat quality: a review. Meat Sci 66:21–32 (2004).
Elmadfa I and Kornsteiner M, Fats and fatty acid requirements for adults. Ann Nutr Metab 55:56–75 (2009).
Józefiak D, Józefiak A, Kierończyk B, Rawski M, Świątkiewicz S, Długosz J et al., 1. Insects–a natural nutrient source for poultry–a review. Ann Anim Sci 16:297–313 (2016).
Kulma M, Plachý V, Kouřimská L, Vrabec V, Bubová T, Adámková A et al., Nutritional value of three Blattodea species used as feed for animals. J Anim Feed Sci 25:354–360 (2016).
Finke MD, Nutrient composition of bee brood and its potential as human food. Ecol Food Nutr 44:257–270 (2005).
Finke MD, Complete nutrient content of four species of feeder insects. Zoo Biol 32:27–36 (2013).
Mariod AA, Abdel‐Wahab SI and Ain NM, Proximate amino acid, fatty acid and mineral composition of two Sudanese edible pentatomid insects. Int J Trop Insect Sci 31:145–153 (2011).
Huis A, Itterbeeck JV, Klunder H, Mertens E, Halloran a, Muir G and Vantomme P, edible insects: future prospects for food and feed security. Food and agriculture organization of the United nations 187:67–97 (2013) https://edepot.wur.nl/258042.
Belluco S, Losasso C, Maggioletti M, Alonzi C, Ricci A and Paoletti MG, Edible insects: a food security solution or a food safety concern. Anim Front 5:25–30 (2015).
USDA, FoodData Central Food Search (2024). https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/food-search?query=&type=Foundation (25 March 2025).
Prodiet fluid, How to characterize protein quality? (2019). https://www.prodiet-fluid.com/blog/how-to-characterize-protein-quality/ (27 March 2025).
Benedé S and Molina E, Chicken egg proteins and derived peptides with antioxidant properties. Foods 9:735 (2020).
Wu G, Important roles of dietary taurine, creatine, carnosine, anserine and 4‐hydroxyproline in human nutrition and health. Amino Acids 52:329–360 (2020).
Standl T, Horn P, Wilhelm S, Greim C, Freitag M, Freitag U et al., bovine haemoglobin is more potent than autologous red blood cells in restoring muscular tissue oxygenation after profound isovolaemic haemodilution in dogs. Can J Anaesth 43:714–723 (1996).
Madureira AR, Pereira CI, Gomes AMP, Pintado ME and Xavier Malcata F, Bovine whey proteins – overview on their main biological properties. Food Res Int 40:1197–1211 (2007).
Li J, Bollati C, Aiello G, Bartolomei M, Rivardo F, Boschin G et al., Evaluation of the multifunctional dipeptidyl‐peptidase IV and angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitory properties of a casein hydrolysate using cell‐free and cell‐based assays. Front Nutr 10:1198258 (2023).
Yamada Y, Muraki A, Oie M, Kanegawa N, Oda A, Sawashi Y et al., Soymorphin‐5, a soy‐derived μ‐opioid peptide, decreases glucose and triglyceride levels through activating adiponectin and PPARα systems in diabetic KKAy mice. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 302:E433–E440 (2012).
Szerszunowicz I and Kozicki S, Plant‐derived proteins and peptides as potential Immunomodulators. Molecules 29:209 (2024).
Rezvankhah A, Yarmand MS, Ghanbarzadeh B and Mirzaee H, Development of lentil peptides with potent antioxidant, antihypertensive, and antidiabetic activities along with umami taste. Food Sci Nutr 11:2974–2989 (2023).
Adhikari B, Dhungana SK, Ali MW, Adhikari A, Kim ID and Shin DH, Resveratrol, total phenolic and flavonoid contents, and antioxidant potential of seeds and sprouts of Korean peanuts. Food Sci Biotechnol 27:1275–1284 (2018).
Palacin A, Quirce S, Armentia A, Fernández‐Nieto M, Pacios LF, Asensio T et al., Wheat lipid transfer protein is a major allergen associated with baker's asthma. J Allergy Clin Immunol 120:1132–1138 (2007).
Hall F, Reddivari L and Liceaga AM, Identification and characterization of edible cricket peptides on hypertensive and glycemic in vitro inhibition and their anti‐inflammatory activity on RAW 264.7 macrophage cells. Nutrients 12:3588 (2020).
Lawal KG, Kavle RR, Akanbi TO, Mirosa M and Agyei D, Enrichment in specific fatty acids profile of Tenebrio molitor and Hermetia illucens larvae through feeding. Future Foods 3:100016 (2021).
Smola MA, Oba PM, Utterback PL, Sánchez‐Sánchez L, Parsons CM and Swanson KS, Amino acid digestibility and protein quality of mealworm‐based ingredients using the precision‐fed cecectomized rooster assay. J Anim Sci 101:skad012 (2023).
OSOA, Homemade Protein Bar using Whey Protein (2024). https://www.osoaa.in/blogs/recipe/homemade‐protein‐bar‐using‐whey‐protein?srsltid=AfmBOooBYztTtLE7q7oCPPu37Pa2w8ojxlG9C_I3PmTWfX9Z96yeAudW (29 March 2025).
Lubna's Culinary Adventures, Cricket Protein Energy Balls (2019). https://lubnascookbook.com/2019/10/07/cricket‐protein‐energy‐balls/ (25 March 2025).
Eat Grub, Cricket Flour Banana Pancakes (2024). https://www.eatgrub.co.uk/insect‐recipes/cricket‐flour‐banana‐pancakes/?srsltid=AfmBOoqHPrHLmaVIxmjomWB8J6nsRSsc2f‐uSHWLbgLyQrlFp1GdnkL6 (27 March 2025).
World Brand Design Society, Antioxidant Drinks With Insect Extracts Supfly. (2023). https://worldbranddesign.com/antioxidant-drinks-with-insect-extracts-supfly/ (28 march 2025).
Contributed Indexing:
Keywords: bodybuilding nutrition; edible insects; insect‐based supplements; protein digestibility; sustainable protein
Substance Nomenclature:
0 (Insect Proteins)
Entry Date(s):
Date Created: 20250715 Date Completed: 20251213 Latest Revision: 20251213
Update Code:
20260130
DOI:
10.1002/jsfa.70040
PMID:
40662628
Database:
MEDLINE
*Further Information*
*Protein is a crucial macronutrient for muscle growth, repair, and optimal performance. Conventional sources such as whey and casein dominate the nutrition industry; however, concerns about their environmental impact, resource-intensive production, and digestibility necessitate the exploration of alternative protein sources. Edible insects are a highly sustainable and nutrient-dense option, delivering complete proteins with all essential amino acids, a high bioavailability of micronutrients, and favorable digestion kinetics. Comparative studies suggest that insect-derived proteins exhibit protein efficiency ratios and digestibility scores comparable to those of traditional proteins, making them viable for muscle synthesis and post-exercise recovery. However, several challenges hinder the widespread adoption of insect proteins as supplements. The bioactive peptides and specific metabolic pathways governing insect protein absorption remain underexplored compared to extensively studied whey proteins. Additionally, allergenicity profiles and potential immunogenic responses require rigorous evaluation to ensure product safety. Consumer reluctance, shaped by cultural biases and limited exposure, further impedes market integration in the region. Moreover, regulatory inconsistencies across global food safety frameworks complicate the commercialization process. Additionally, evaluating their role in muscle protein synthesis, endurance enhancement, and post-exercise recovery will determine their efficacy as sustainable alternatives in strength- and muscle-building regimens. This review explores the nutritional composition of edible insects, their environmental benefits, and their potential health risks. It also compares insect proteins with traditional sources, examines their role in muscle growth, highlights innovative insect-based products, and discusses consumer acceptance and market perspectives. © 2025 Society of Chemical Industry.
(© 2025 Society of Chemical Industry.)*